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System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is an agro-ecological practice for increasing the productivity of irrigated rice cultivation by changing the management of water, plants, soil and nutrients. SRI promotes the growth of root systems, increases the abundance and diversity of soil organisms by keeping the soil moist but not flooded, and provides frequent aeration and conditioning of soil with organic matter. This agro-ecological practice stimulates plant growth by transplanting young seedlings, avoiding disturbance to roots and providing crops with wider spacing to encourage greater root and canopy growth. The agricultural methodology is based on well-founded agro-ecological principles which have been successfully adapted to upland rice and have shown increased productivity over current conventional planting practices.

Alternate wetting and drying also called intermittent flooding is a technique developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) to control water consumption in rice fields (CGIAR 2014). This technology saves water throughout the year in areas of variable rainfall. It is designed as a pick-up water system in cases when water consumption is cut. Water levels are monitored and controlled by the removal of excess water, leaving enough water to sustain crops. Alternate wetting and drying reduces greenhouse gas emissions especially methane, which is emitted from flooded rice fields (FAO 2016). The drying phase helps to sustain and develop plant roots. Moreover, costs on fuel used for irrigation are reduced.

Rainwater harvesting is an agricultural technique of collecting and storing rainwater or runoff in tanks or natural reservoirs. This practice is mostly practiced in arid or semi-arid areas with temporal and spatial variability of rainfall mostly lost as surface runoff or evaporation. Runoff is harvested and utilised as a preventative measure for soil erosion, as well as a water management strategy for irrigating crops and for livestock water. This technique enables farmers to capture and store rainwater during times of plenty for use during times of scarcity. Rainwater harvesting is a technology that maximises the use of existing freshwater resources and is a useful technology for water resource planners and managers in both governmental and non-governmental organisations, institutions and communities.

A permeable rock dam is a water harvesting technique where flooding rain water is collected in valley bases or other depressions to irrigate crops later/elsewhere, filling in gullies, controlling water flows, increasing crop production and reducing soil erosion.. Permeable rock dams are long and relatively shallow to reduce erosion while accumulating silt and distributing water. They comprise of long low rock walls with smooth crests so that water can spread to avoid overflow from the dam. However, this technology is site specific; it cannot be practiced in areas where there are no rocks/stones and means of transporting these building materials. The impoundment of silt prior to runoff entering a watercourse can be beneficiary to downstream users and can contribute to improved water quality in the catchment

Water spreading bunds are barriers used on gradual slopes to slow down surface water and slow filter runoff, increasing the chance of infiltration, capturing runoff sediment, and decreasing soil erosion. Bunds can be built of different materials including packed earth or stones. Bunds can be spread across fields or used in micro-settings around individual trees or plants and should be applied in semi-arid or arid conditions. Bunds efficiently spread rainwater across the system and prevent streams from developing. Implementing bunds in areas with adequate rainfall or irrigation, may cause waterlogging and adversely affect crop growth.

Different types of bunds include:

• Contour bunds: ridges of soil that follow slope contours and can be implemented at a large scale. Crops are cultivated between bunds.
• Semi-circle bunds: ridges of varying size build in a half-moon or semi-circle. They are generally applied to rehabilitate rangelands and/or in the production of fodder.
• Contour stone bunds: lines of stones laid in a shallow dug out areas that slow down the flow of runoff

Zai pits are based on a traditional technology approach originating from West Africa that assists farmers working on marginal and degraded land. This approach involves the concentration and conservation of nutrients and water at the crop root systems through the digging of small pits (Zai pits) and filling them with compost, with the aim of increasing soil fertility and water infiltration. Zai pits are dug between planting season and filled with organic fertilisers/composts, which attract worms, termites and other insects, creating mix of material that can be used to fertilise crops. Farmers plant crops directly in these pits, prior to rains and water will infiltrate the pits more easily than the surrounding soil. Applying this technology is laborious to implement, but it  has been found to assist farmers in times of drought or in arid conditions to produce successful crops by maximising the resources available. Zai pits allow for mitigation of desertification in degraded land and an economic use of resources in conditions of scarcity, especially in resource constrained environments

In-field water harvesting is the practice of increasing water infiltration and moisture retention in the soil. The agricultural technique involves the collection of rainwater runoff from fields that is collected and stored for future needs. This water can be stored in infiltration pits and later used to water the same crops, other crops through an irrigation system (usually high value crops, including fruit trees), or used for domestic purposes. Factors like soil, water, and plant type influence the effectiveness and productivity of rainwater harvesting. This type of water harvesting is generally implemented in areas of very low rain (semi-arid) conditions. In-field water harvesting entails establishing micro-catchments at the farm scale, where sloped areas have been cleared or cropped to direct rainwater to the water storage area (a pit that has been dug to store/hold water). Utilising strip cropping to growing crops while providing a method for directing rain is sometime practiced. The soil type has a limiting factor in collecting in-field water due the infiltration rates. In-field water harvesting saves rainfall water that can be used over a longer period than during and immediately after a rainfall event, reduces the risks of crop failure due to no or limited rainfall, and increases rain water productivity.

Supplemental irrigation (SI) , also referred to as  Deficit Irrigation, is the application of water below full crop-water requirements, generally in drylands to assist crop growth in areas that experience low rainfall (300-500 mm/year). Supplemental irrigation involves adding limited amounts of water to rainfed crops to improve and stabilise yields when rainfall is insufficient for plant growth. Supplemental irrigation is a valuable and sustainable production strategy in dry regions or when experiencing irregular climatic conditions. This practice requires understanding of the yield response to water and the economic impact of loss in harvest. The aim of this technique is to ensure that the minimum amount of water is available during critical stages of crop growth.

Agroforestry is a land management practice that combines the planting and management of trees and shrubs with crops and pasture, providing benefits of soil health, crop yields, resilience to climate change, biodiversity and economic opportunities. Agroforestry encompasses numerous practices, including silvo-pasture, agro-silvo cultural, and agro-silvo-pastural. One successful agro-silvo-cultural practice is alley cropping, where the farmer plants rows of trees, shrubs or hedges between crop rows. Usually hedges comprise leguminous plants intended to fix nitrogen in the soil and provide leaf litter and prunable biomass. The hedges are pruned with the pruned material spread on the ground, to reduce shading and competition with the primary crop. Timing of pruning is important to ensure that the pruned biomass releases nutrients to the soil at a time when the primary crop needs them for maximum crop productivity; e.g. when alley-cropping maize, the pruned biomass needs to breakdown with and release beneficial nutrients into soil from two and eight weeks after planting the maize crop. This approach has proven to be highly successful, with examples in Malawi where gliricidia was alley-cropped with maize where the prunings created a three-fold increase in maize production, which was increased a further 29 % when fertilisers were added. This fertilisation could be achieved with green manure, and other climate smart soil amendment approaches. The space and number of hedge rows to primary crop is dependent upon the field size and the regular growth height of the shrub/hedge. The hedge must not be planted so close that it shades the primary crop. In larger fields, larger deep-rooted timber trees can be planted between groups of rows of primary crop, providing soil benefits, reducing wind-speeds/erosion, and providing timber products.

This approach is considered climate smart as it increases productivity, provides a mechanism for more climate resilient farming, whilst increasing soil carbon levels.

Erosion control measures are practices designed to reduce runoff water and wind erosion that wash away top soil and nutrients, degrading soil biodiversity and reducing agricultural productivity. Erosion is a natural, biophysical process resulting from rainfall, water flows, wind, or storm runoff. Erosion is integral to the formation of soils, however human and animal activity, including agriculture and clearing of land, can accelerate erosive processes, drastically impacting landscapes, soils (e.g. quality) and watercourses. In addition, erosion control measures can contribute to reducing rainfall runoff, increased water infiltration into the soil, and attenuates flooding. The intensity of rainfall is directly correlated with the severity of soil erosion; hence, this is a significant problem across the Southern African region as much of the rainfall in the region is episodic, and intense. To prevent or reduce erosive processes control measures can be incorporated into farming systems to reduce or reverse degradation and potentially restore or improve soil quality. Erosion control measures aim to mitigate soil erosion and improve soil fertility by reducing flow and speed of run-off to avoid soil being washed away. Erosion control can be initiated through a number of interventions, including, but not limited to, intercropping (e.g. planting cover crops), mulch, conservation tillage and reforestation, as well as terracing, soil bunds, etc.. Example: Stone Bunds. Lessons learned from West Africa show that stone bunds constructed along contour lines in fields and in key run-off locations can significantly reduce run-off, particularly in steeper agricultural fields. The stone lines reinforce the soil structure in the field following the contours of the land, reducing the speed and volume of run-off, thereby reducing the likelihood of erosion. This is an appropriate technology to implement on slopes up to 15 to 20 degrees. This is considered a climate smart practice as it maintains soil structure and nutrients, in turn retaining carbon in soil, enabling farmers to adapt to climate changes and sustain agricultural productivity.