Neutral

Vaccination is the administration of immunisation injections to animals in order to prevent, control spread of diseases.  Vaccination campaigns involve administration of vaccine doses to a large population over a short period of time. The veterinary services departments or equivalent of respective countries normally gives free vaccinations to the farming community's animals for diseases which are of either economic significance to people's livelihoods or those that maybe of zoonotic importance (communicable to man from animals). These campaigns are usually fully funded by the government, NGOs to reduce disease outbreaks, prevent spread of an outbreak or improve national herd productivity, and are designed to reach as much livestock as possible. In most countries, free vaccinations are offer for the following diseases: Anthrax(-Cattle), Quarter evil or black quarter disease (Cattle), Contagious abortion (Cattle), Rabies (Dogs & Cats), Foot and Mouth Disease(Cattle)_ as per OIE designation in Disease Control Zones.

 For the message to reach farmers, community radios and involvement of traditional leadership can be used to encourage farmers to participate in vaccination campaigns.  This will help to gain trust and confidence from farmers for the campaign to be successful. Vaccination campaigns is a climate smart practice as it ensures a healthy population able to utilize feed efficiently with a reduced population discharge thus reduced GHG emission.

Resistant breeds Disease resistance is the reduction of pathogen growth in or in a plant or animal; denoting less disease development in a particular breed than that which is relatively susceptible and is specific to a particular strain of disease or attribute. Breeding resistant breeds  . Resistance” means the animal actively fights infection by various means. Building resistant breeds can be done through selection. Selective breeding, sometimes called artificial selection, where different breeds of animals with desired characteristics or attributes like resistance to. drought, heat, cold, salinity, flood, submergence and pests can be developed by selective breeding and thus able to relatively thrive in some conditions which would otherwise not be able to, e.g. This assists in the reduction of diseases, results in healthier productive animals and reduces risk of secondary infections in livestock. These breeds create a potential for more efficient conversion of feed into meat or diary, and thus a climate smart attribute since by reducing emissions per unit of production (proportionately less faeces are dropped per unit consumption of feed) as well as contributing to food security.,. In the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, local breeds are more resistant to many of the pests and diseases and may be the best option for some farmers in the Arid and semi-arid areas of the region.

Species diversification involves a shift from a single species of livestock to more species in an attempt to manage risk and explore more resilient livestock farming options. Species diversification can be introduced in response to changes in local environment/climate conditions, including increasing temperatures, unreliable sources of water and availability of pasture, etc. The aim of this approach is to explore the introduction of species that may be more viable and adaptable in changing local conditions thus improving production levels by keeping animals that will be productive under harsh weather conditions and sustain the quality of the produce. Diversification as a climate smart practice assists farmers with utilising available resources more effectively, e.g. mixing grazers and browsers. Species that react well to changing climatic conditions may cause a shift of demand from grazers to browsers. This practice mitigates disease control, can improve soil fertility and increase water management. Government policies can also influence farmers in diversifying their species with many countries dedicating agricultural research and extension to explore the introduction of different species (e.g. cattle to goats) to assist farmers. It is important that species that are introduced do not have an adverse impact on local fauna or the surrounding environment.

The Alternative breeds approach involves substitution of breeds, introducing a new (alternative) breed with a current breed to potentially increase production levels in a farm. Breed substitution involves genetic improvement of cattle and goats especially in dairy farming and meat production. Alternative breeds are introduced in order to ascertain competition between breeds based on health, fertility, performance, profits and management requirements. The substitution breeds are picked because there some traits that may be lacking in current breeds at the farm. For example, some farmers in Malawi who have introduced the Black Australop breed of chicken, either by crossbreeding with local chickens or replacing the local chicken altogether. This breed produces much more meat and lays more eggs, which increases farm production and income. This is a climate smart option as it introduces breeds that may require less water or can manage with lower quality feed – thereby reducing costs, and risks.

Assisted reproduction refers to artificial insemination, where semen is deliberately introduced to fertilise eggs in domestic animals. Artificial insemination helps in obtaining genetic improvements that yield higher production levels. This practice is more expensive but more efficient than natural reproduction. Artificial insemination reduces the risk of disease transmission and injuries or accidents during mating. Sperm duplication can be done from a single ejaculation to make hundreds of doses and distributed across farmers to have variety of breeds rather than off-spring from single bulls. This prevents inbreeding and promotes hybrid vigour among farmers’. In the southern African context, where most grazing is communal, use of bulls to improve breeds can be challenging as it is difficult to adopt a grazing system that will ensure good quality breeds are able to pass their progeny to the next generation, as young and likely non-superior bulls are likely to mate with cows during grazing. To achieve genetic improvement using open grazing requires controlled grazing systems, e.g. by use of paddocks to manage bulls grazing and mixing with cows.

Rotational grazing is a practice of moving livestock between different units of pasture in regular sequence to allow the recovery and regrowth of pasture plants after grazing. This facilitates management of the nutritional needs of the various types of livestock whilst maintaining pasture productivity. Management of intensive grazing/controlled grazing is a climate smart practice as it results in improved forage harvest, soil fertility, resistance to drought, reduced pasture weeds establishment, reduced wastage of forage and soil compaction.

Rotational grazing can also be combined with cut and carry approaches - when managed correctly; rotational grazing can provide enough forage growth early in the grazing season for producers to harvest feed for later use in some paddocks as rotation continues. Farmers can use temporary fence systems to manage the size of, and access to pastures.

Cut and carry is the agricultural practice of cutting and carrying fodder crops away from the field that they are grown in to feed to livestock. Fodder trees, shrubs or grasses are sources for livestock feed in this practice. Cut and Carry is a key CSA practice where overgrazing is a problem. This practice takes pressure off grazing land at critical periods, reduces land degradation caused by livestock and increases soil organic matter, while still feeding livestock for productive outcomes. This practice can also be used in more intensive livestock production where livestock are kept housed for periods stretching from half a year to a year and improved nutrition is required. However, fodder production can be costly in terms of cultivation, requiring significant management over and above the livestock themselves. Fodder is collected from sites where it grows naturally, or it can be grown in fodder banks, hedges, boundaries, etc. Feeding livestock using this approach can ensure the supply of a large quantity of high quality and palatable fodder within a short time, as well ensuring soil is not disturbed through open grazing systems, thus a good CSA practice. It can be adapted to the farmer’s needs and can provide a way of introducing the farmer to the concept of improving livestock at the same time as conserving soil.

Palatability - referring to plant features or conditions that encourage animals to feed on the plant when given a choice – is important as the ability or willingness of animals to feed on specific forage determines the efficiency of production of animal products. When feed is consumed in larger quantities, depending on its nutritive value, it helps increase milk and/or meat production. Plants with stiff and harsh leaves are generally not palatable to animals, unlike those with softer leaves and grass. The nutritive value of the plant matters when it comes to palatability. Palatability will be determined by the texture, aroma, succulence, hairiness, leaf percentage, sugar content and other factors. Moreover, leaves are more palatable than stems. Palatability of plants can be increased by grazing livestock at the optimal grass growing stage before seed formation, using a High Intensity, Low Frequency (HILF) grazing pattern which allows uniform grazing of pastures and gives an allowance for regrowth and thus overall, uniform soil cover. Addressing palatability is often of greater concern during dry season, when grazing/pasture is less common, and farmers have to rely on stored silage.

Fodder is the agricultural term for animal feed. Fodder trees and shrubs play an important role in bridging the gap between livestock feed requirements and the low quality and quantity of feeds available to many farmers. As well as providing feed or acting as a feed supplement for livestock, fodder trees and shrubs supply other benefits, such as firewood and erosion control. Fodder trees are either grown in-situ, from seed, and others are planted in nurseries and then transplanted to the field at the beginning of the rainy season. The transplanting method can be more successful than the direct planting - as high as 34 % better, but with a 24 % increase in cost per plant. Benefits of using fodder trees and shrubs as a dietary supplement include improved growth, health and reproductive capacity, and increased milk and meat production, mostly through increased protean uptake. Fodder trees and shrubs can be planted as living fences, field boundaries and in tree/shrub plantations. Popular species include African acacias, and Atriplex nummularia, Cassia petersiana, C. mopane, D. cineria, F. albida, Julbernadia paniculata, P. reclinata, Piliostigma thonningii, Swartizia madagascariensis and Trema orientalis.

Farmers of all categories can use this climate smart sustainable approach to produce both livestock and field crops to obtain improve benefits, improving nutrition for livestock animals, improving soil health, reducing cost of livestock feeding, and as a result increasing income

Carrying capacity defines the number of Animal Units (AU; head of cattle or number of sheep, goats or other animals) that can graze in a rangeland unit without exhausting the vegetation and soil quality – essentially optimally utilising resources. Optimum carrying capacity is where a given unit of rangeland can support healthy populations of animal species, while allowing an ecosystem to regenerate, thus creating a sustainable balance. The stocking rate - defined as the number of animal species grazing a unit of rangeland for a limited period - must be kept fixed on an average year, meeting the carrying capacity to allow regeneration, the fallen seeds to rejuvenate and the soil to recover. However, stocking rates can fluctuate depending on the nature of the vegetation, rainfall variability, herd composition and management system. If the conditions are not favourable for vegetation growth during drought season, the number of livestock or the grazing period must be adjusted to avoid overgrazing. Moreover, the purpose of livestock keeping, i.e. for milk, meat, or wool production, will determine the carrying capacity of a rangeland unit. Factors such as climatic zone, rainfall dependency, class of livestock (steer, dry cow, calves, lactating cow and bull, etc), health of grassland and animal species affect the stocking rate. While relevant in all climatic zones, it is more applicable in arid and semi-arid zones where rainfall is most scarce. This climate smart practice increases production (meat/dairy), increases pasture resilience to extreme climate hazards (drought) and enhances soil fertility.