Neutral

While rotating crops or leaving fields fallow for several growing seasons is good practice, some farmers do not have this luxury, needing to continue planting season upon season. However, this practice will soon see soils depleted of nutrients. In these cases, use of green manure, and organic fertilisers is recommended. In. the last-resort cases where chemical fertilisers must be used, banding and micro-dosing are approaches that rationalise or minimise application. Banding is the agricultural practice of placing fertiliser in a row below soil surface, covering with soil and planting seeds above the fertiliser, whereas Micro-dosing – sometimes referred to as ring-placement - is the practice of placing small, more affordable amounts of fertiliser around each crop plant. Banding is a common method used for basal fertiliser applications and uses less fertiliser than broadcasting as it is applied in rows rather than throughout the whole field. Micro-dosing is applicable where plants are widely spaced and where soil increases the chances of nutrient loss due to leaching. While the use of chemical fertilisers is not strictly considered climate smart, these practices promote economic and rationalised application of fertilisers, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, whilst improving resilience in the face of climate change, and providing options for maintain agricultural productivity.

The use of chemical insecticides and pesticides can be expensive and therefore not an economically viable option for small scale farmers, while also not being climate smart – widespread use of pesticides and herbicides contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Encouraging natural predators can be an effective method for controlling and managing pests in some instances. With governments across the globe discouraging the use of chemical insecticides and pesticide products, biological control of pests is preferred and encouraged - using living organisms to control pests. Natural predators are insects that feed on pests without damaging the crop and can be found throughout the crops. Encouraging natural predators helps in supressing pests during their early and late lifecycles, improving crop production and reducing pollution caused by pesticides use. The introduction of water-fowl, such ducks in rice systems can be a highly effective form of biological control of pests. They enjoy aquatic habitats, consume insects and can even contribute to weeding as tear up weed plants as they look for food. Insect predators have different roles in controlling pests, there are predators that will control pests in the early pest lifecycle where they feed on their larvae and eggs while some are present at the late pest cycle where they feed on mature insects. Some species of ants are natural predators of stemborer pests, and wasp and some fly species larvae are parasitoids (larvae that feed on a host organism) prey on fall armyworm. One such wasp is the tiny (3 mm in length) Cotesia marginiventris which feeds on FAW caterpillars. The minute (0.5 mm in length) Trichogramma was species lays it’s eggs inside FAW eggs, killing the FAW larvae in the process. Earwigs (Dermaptera: Forficulidae, Carcinophoridae), ground beetles and ladybird beetles are also known to prey on FAW caterpillars. The issue with many of these solutions is volume of consumption, which may be too low to impact an infestation. Ants are the most important predators of FAW, as the communities consume larger quantities of FAW. However, pesticides drastically impact ant populations.

Bottle traps are an agricultural technology used to lure insects inside containers (bottles) containing bait of either food or chemical attractants. The objective is to lure pest insects to identify them for pest control, as part of overall pest monitoring, including field walks, observation and crop inspections. In larger fields they are used solely for pest identification. In smaller fields a number of traps can be used as a pest control method, trapping the insects, but this is not a common approach. Bottle traps must be installed in locations close to or amongst crops and across the farm in order to attract insects for identification and should be used throughout all cropping season to ensure that pests can be identified earlier. As a component of Integrated Pest Management, bottle traps with different lures or baits can be used to attract and identify most types of aphids and mites, fruit flies, stem borers, and fall army worm. While many of the lures and baits can be made at home or on the farm, pheromone-based baits need to be purchased from agricultural suppliers. While this introduces costs, bottle traps and lures can contribute significantly pest management, through early identification so appropriate action can be taken. This technology can contribute to climate smart agriculture objectives, as bottle traps and lures can reduce the amount of pesticides used, reducing greenhouse gas emissions; they can help with identifying new pests and insects as climates shift; and as pests are identified or reduced, productivity can increase. It is important for farmers and workers to keep records of pests identified to ensure that appropriate responses are enacted. There could be cases where infestation levels are low and the cost of taking action may be more that nominal crop losses. However, the opposite may be true, but decisions cannot be made without relevant information for extension workers to discuss with farmers.

A weed plant is an unwanted plant that grows among and competes with crops for water, air, sunlight, nutrients and space. The removal of such plants from fields – known as ‘weeding’ - is vital to enhancing crop growth. They can be removed by cutting their roots either by hand or using an implement such as a hoe. Some cereal crops like rice and maize attract weeds that are herbicide resistant; hence, the use of a hoe in removing the weeds is the most effective practice. However, as mechanic weeding can result in release of weed seeds into the soils as the hoe makes contact with the plant, weeding by-hand is the best way for weed removal to prevent weed seeds from falling onto the ground for further germination; this can increase the labour intensity of weeding considerably. This is a climate smart practice as it mitigates the emission of greenhouse gases from herbicides into the atmosphere, land and water systems. Furthermore, weeding helps maintain sustainable agricultural productivity, when considered an integral part of farm management and operations. However, weeding has been identified as one of the largest labour inputs for subsistence agriculture, accounting for between 30 and 50 % of on-farm labour requirements.

Vaccination is the administration of immunisation injections to animals in order to prevent, control spread of diseases.  Vaccination campaigns involve administration of vaccine doses to a large population over a short period of time. The veterinary services departments or equivalent of respective countries normally gives free vaccinations to the farming community's animals for diseases which are of either economic significance to people's livelihoods or those that maybe of zoonotic importance (communicable to man from animals). These campaigns are usually fully funded by the government, NGOs to reduce disease outbreaks, prevent spread of an outbreak or improve national herd productivity, and are designed to reach as much livestock as possible. In most countries, free vaccinations are offer for the following diseases: Anthrax(-Cattle), Quarter evil or black quarter disease (Cattle), Contagious abortion (Cattle), Rabies (Dogs & Cats), Foot and Mouth Disease(Cattle)_ as per OIE designation in Disease Control Zones.

 For the message to reach farmers, community radios and involvement of traditional leadership can be used to encourage farmers to participate in vaccination campaigns.  This will help to gain trust and confidence from farmers for the campaign to be successful. Vaccination campaigns is a climate smart practice as it ensures a healthy population able to utilize feed efficiently with a reduced population discharge thus reduced GHG emission.

The Alternative breeds approach involves substitution of breeds, introducing a new (alternative) breed with a current breed to potentially increase production levels in a farm. Breed substitution involves genetic improvement of cattle and goats especially in dairy farming and meat production. Alternative breeds are introduced in order to ascertain competition between breeds based on health, fertility, performance, profits and management requirements. The substitution breeds are picked because there some traits that may be lacking in current breeds at the farm. For example, some farmers in Malawi who have introduced the Black Australop breed of chicken, either by crossbreeding with local chickens or replacing the local chicken altogether. This breed produces much more meat and lays more eggs, which increases farm production and income. This is a climate smart option as it introduces breeds that may require less water or can manage with lower quality feed – thereby reducing costs, and risks.

Cut and carry is the agricultural practice of cutting and carrying fodder crops away from the field that they are grown in to feed to livestock. Fodder trees, shrubs or grasses are sources for livestock feed in this practice. Cut and Carry is a key CSA practice where overgrazing is a problem. This practice takes pressure off grazing land at critical periods, reduces land degradation caused by livestock and increases soil organic matter, while still feeding livestock for productive outcomes. This practice can also be used in more intensive livestock production where livestock are kept housed for periods stretching from half a year to a year and improved nutrition is required. However, fodder production can be costly in terms of cultivation, requiring significant management over and above the livestock themselves. Fodder is collected from sites where it grows naturally, or it can be grown in fodder banks, hedges, boundaries, etc. Feeding livestock using this approach can ensure the supply of a large quantity of high quality and palatable fodder within a short time, as well ensuring soil is not disturbed through open grazing systems, thus a good CSA practice. It can be adapted to the farmer’s needs and can provide a way of introducing the farmer to the concept of improving livestock at the same time as conserving soil.

Fodder is the agricultural term for animal feed. Fodder trees and shrubs play an important role in bridging the gap between livestock feed requirements and the low quality and quantity of feeds available to many farmers. As well as providing feed or acting as a feed supplement for livestock, fodder trees and shrubs supply other benefits, such as firewood and erosion control. Fodder trees are either grown in-situ, from seed, and others are planted in nurseries and then transplanted to the field at the beginning of the rainy season. The transplanting method can be more successful than the direct planting - as high as 34 % better, but with a 24 % increase in cost per plant. Benefits of using fodder trees and shrubs as a dietary supplement include improved growth, health and reproductive capacity, and increased milk and meat production, mostly through increased protean uptake. Fodder trees and shrubs can be planted as living fences, field boundaries and in tree/shrub plantations. Popular species include African acacias, and Atriplex nummularia, Cassia petersiana, C. mopane, D. cineria, F. albida, Julbernadia paniculata, P. reclinata, Piliostigma thonningii, Swartizia madagascariensis and Trema orientalis.

Farmers of all categories can use this climate smart sustainable approach to produce both livestock and field crops to obtain improve benefits, improving nutrition for livestock animals, improving soil health, reducing cost of livestock feeding, and as a result increasing income

General Feed Supplements are used to increase nutrients in livestock diets, with the aim of maintaining or improving livestock health through adequate animal nutritional balance and therefore productivity of milk or meat. These supplements include vitamins, amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients. Supplementary feeding can becoming either a regular part of the production cycle to help match feed demand to feed supply, assisting livestock farmers meet production requirements as defined by market specifications, or reserved for times of shortage during dry spells and/or droughts. The extent to which supplementary feeding is applied depends on the farm/business objectives and seasonal conditions. This is especially true in areas of low-quality crop residues and low quality pasture land.

Feed supplements are presented in granular, powder or block form and used during milk production and fattening stages for meat production. However, if consumed in excess feed supplements can be harmful to animals causing toxicity and if persistent, death.

Improved protein content in animal feed can positively impact productivity, such as the quality and quantity of meat and milk.  With the increase in global demand for meat and dairy products, the increase of protein in livestock diets is extremely important. Key to the absorption of protein in livestock diets is the improved digestibility of protein. For protein to be utilised efficiently by livestock i.e. consumed and converted into body protein and resulting in bigger and better-quality meat, certain amino acids need to be present. Thus, to maximise protein deposition in livestock, the required amino acids must also be included in the feed. Amino acids have been added to livestock feed for over 40-years. The most common amino acids added to feeds are Methionine, Lysine, Threonine, and Tryptophan. With the expansion of inexpensive plant-based proteins (soybeans etc.) and increasing demands for meat, plant-based proteins offer an alternative or supplement to amino-acids, contributing to greater efficiency of conversion of proteins from feed to meat. Plant-based proteins also require less monitoring than synthetic additives, but amino acids are often needed to maintain digestibility. Improved livestock productivity and conversion is climate smart because there is more efficient conversion of food to weight gain and less livestock pressure on land, supporting a more efficient value chain.