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Flooding irrigation is a practice where water is pumped or allowed to flow into channels passing between crop rows in areas where farmers have level fields. This flooding system is an effective method of managing weeds and pests, preventing the completion of their lifecycles as they are either drowned or isolated from air and sunlight. This practice is applicable in areas where there are favourable climatic conditions with high rainfall amounts; and is not recommended in arid and semi-arid environments. Flooding is controlled using water pumps in order to reduce waterlogging problems, and fields should not be entirely flooded, with surges of periodic flooding used to distribute water and avoid wastage to run-off, evaporation and creation of anaerobic conditions in the soil. Flood waters can be filtered using a fine mesh to control pests and diseases from spreading to neighbouring fields. Sandy soil is not favourable for flood irrigation as it does not evenly distribute water across the field whereas loam and clay soils distribute water efficiently across the field.

It is considered a climate smart practice because it requires less energy, and can promote crop productivity, whilst controlling weeds and pests.

Locally/home-made organic pest control involves the use of home-made remedies to kill and control pests naturally without harming the crop or the environment. Some of the natural pesticides that farmers can use includes soap water, neem, chilli, vegetable oil spray and garlic. These natural remedies are cheaper than the use of chemicals but should be applied in specific amounts for them to be effective. The field must be kept clean to avoid weeds, which provide habitats for insects and weaker crops that are infected must be removed and disposed of away from the field area to avoid attracting further infestations. It is important to minimise disturbance of soil through digging or tilling if not necessary as this can introduce pests into the soil. Alternative approaches such as intercropping, crop rotation, and push/pull systems can also contribute to preventing the spread of pests. This is a climate smart option as it reduces the contribution of pesticides/insecticides to greenhouse gas emissions, and supports sustainable agricultural productivity. If organic insecticides are not effectively killing insects at the rate the farmer wants/needs, chemical controls can be used to halt pest infestation and avoid complete crop loss. However, chemical control of pests should always be the last resort, as chemical pesticides while often hugely effective, are expensive and must be applied precisely to be effective. Furthermore, if used inaccurately chemical pesticides can contaminate crops and the environment, and can impact the farmers’ health. The use of chemicals destroys natural pest enemies and can lead to pest invasion and resistance to pesticides in future, driving continued reliance on chemicals. For example, ants can be a very effective biological control agent against Fall Armyworm (FAW); however, ant populations will also be affected by pesticides.

A weed plant is an unwanted plant that grows among and competes with crops for water, air, sunlight, nutrients and space. The removal of such plants from fields – known as ‘weeding’ - is vital to enhancing crop growth. They can be removed by cutting their roots either by hand or using an implement such as a hoe. Some cereal crops like rice and maize attract weeds that are herbicide resistant; hence, the use of a hoe in removing the weeds is the most effective practice. However, as mechanic weeding can result in release of weed seeds into the soils as the hoe makes contact with the plant, weeding by-hand is the best way for weed removal to prevent weed seeds from falling onto the ground for further germination; this can increase the labour intensity of weeding considerably. This is a climate smart practice as it mitigates the emission of greenhouse gases from herbicides into the atmosphere, land and water systems. Furthermore, weeding helps maintain sustainable agricultural productivity, when considered an integral part of farm management and operations. However, weeding has been identified as one of the largest labour inputs for subsistence agriculture, accounting for between 30 and 50 % of on-farm labour requirements.

Short-term reactive practices are control options for pests and diseases once they have reached a level where the economic losses are likely to be greater than the cost of controlling the pest/disease outbreaks and can be used to maintain or increase production. Pests and diseases are better detected at an earlier stage to make it easier to act and prevent severe crop losses and prohibit the spread of pests and diseases throughout the whole field, achieved through regular and systematic field inspections. The practice is considered climate smart as it reduces losses, which in-balance lowers greenhouse gas emissions per tonne of crop produced, it retains agricultural productivity through management of pest infestation and/or disease outbreaks, and is applicable as it can assist farmers adjust to changing climate, and the threat of new and changing pest diseases.

Cultural pest control practices Are pest control management measures to control pests (insects, diseases, weeds) by manipulation of the environment or implementation of preventive practices including using plants that are resistant to pests, raising the mowing height of pastures to shade out weeds, aerating pastures to reduce compaction and plant stress. Several beneficial cultural practices can meet both demands, helping with pest and disease control and minimizing the use of toxic chemicals. In the insect pest management context, cultural practices may be considered as specific crop production practices that may be implemented either in the initial stages of the organic farm plan but also as a continuous plan to reduce the likelihood of insect pest infestation to a crop and damage. They form part of the Integrated Pest management (IPM) Practices and are based on tactics to disrupt pest infestation of crops by having the crop unavailable to pests in space and time, making the crop unacceptable to pests by interfering with host preference or location, reducing pest survival on the crop by enhancing natural enemies, altering the crop’s susceptibility to pests. The tactics or methods used in IPM include one or a combination of the following: Cultural control (crop rotation, use of locally adapted or pest resistant/tolerant varieties, sanitation, manipulating planting/harvest dates to avoid pests). Cultural pest control or IPM results in reduced pests/diseases and increased yields and is a climate-smart practice as its emphasis of prevention helps to control pests and diseases before they occur;  its continuous long-term practices without use of chemicals encourage healthier and more pest resilient crops and landscapes, encouraging the use of beneficial insects  making it an adaptation benefit. The possibility of prediction and recognition of pest outbreaks enables earlier management consultations and decisions. The reduction in losses results in lower GHG emissions per tonne produced.

Vaccination is the administration of immunisation injections to animals in order to prevent, control spread of diseases.  Vaccination campaigns involve administration of vaccine doses to a large population over a short period of time. The veterinary services departments or equivalent of respective countries normally gives free vaccinations to the farming community's animals for diseases which are of either economic significance to people's livelihoods or those that maybe of zoonotic importance (communicable to man from animals). These campaigns are usually fully funded by the government, NGOs to reduce disease outbreaks, prevent spread of an outbreak or improve national herd productivity, and are designed to reach as much livestock as possible. In most countries, free vaccinations are offer for the following diseases: Anthrax(-Cattle), Quarter evil or black quarter disease (Cattle), Contagious abortion (Cattle), Rabies (Dogs & Cats), Foot and Mouth Disease(Cattle)_ as per OIE designation in Disease Control Zones.

 For the message to reach farmers, community radios and involvement of traditional leadership can be used to encourage farmers to participate in vaccination campaigns.  This will help to gain trust and confidence from farmers for the campaign to be successful. Vaccination campaigns is a climate smart practice as it ensures a healthy population able to utilize feed efficiently with a reduced population discharge thus reduced GHG emission.

Resistant breeds Disease resistance is the reduction of pathogen growth in or in a plant or animal; denoting less disease development in a particular breed than that which is relatively susceptible and is specific to a particular strain of disease or attribute. Breeding resistant breeds  . Resistance” means the animal actively fights infection by various means. Building resistant breeds can be done through selection. Selective breeding, sometimes called artificial selection, where different breeds of animals with desired characteristics or attributes like resistance to. drought, heat, cold, salinity, flood, submergence and pests can be developed by selective breeding and thus able to relatively thrive in some conditions which would otherwise not be able to, e.g. This assists in the reduction of diseases, results in healthier productive animals and reduces risk of secondary infections in livestock. These breeds create a potential for more efficient conversion of feed into meat or diary, and thus a climate smart attribute since by reducing emissions per unit of production (proportionately less faeces are dropped per unit consumption of feed) as well as contributing to food security.,. In the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, local breeds are more resistant to many of the pests and diseases and may be the best option for some farmers in the Arid and semi-arid areas of the region.

Species diversification involves a shift from a single species of livestock to more species in an attempt to manage risk and explore more resilient livestock farming options. Species diversification can be introduced in response to changes in local environment/climate conditions, including increasing temperatures, unreliable sources of water and availability of pasture, etc. The aim of this approach is to explore the introduction of species that may be more viable and adaptable in changing local conditions thus improving production levels by keeping animals that will be productive under harsh weather conditions and sustain the quality of the produce. Diversification as a climate smart practice assists farmers with utilising available resources more effectively, e.g. mixing grazers and browsers. Species that react well to changing climatic conditions may cause a shift of demand from grazers to browsers. This practice mitigates disease control, can improve soil fertility and increase water management. Government policies can also influence farmers in diversifying their species with many countries dedicating agricultural research and extension to explore the introduction of different species (e.g. cattle to goats) to assist farmers. It is important that species that are introduced do not have an adverse impact on local fauna or the surrounding environment.

The Alternative breeds approach involves substitution of breeds, introducing a new (alternative) breed with a current breed to potentially increase production levels in a farm. Breed substitution involves genetic improvement of cattle and goats especially in dairy farming and meat production. Alternative breeds are introduced in order to ascertain competition between breeds based on health, fertility, performance, profits and management requirements. The substitution breeds are picked because there some traits that may be lacking in current breeds at the farm. For example, some farmers in Malawi who have introduced the Black Australop breed of chicken, either by crossbreeding with local chickens or replacing the local chicken altogether. This breed produces much more meat and lays more eggs, which increases farm production and income. This is a climate smart option as it introduces breeds that may require less water or can manage with lower quality feed – thereby reducing costs, and risks.

Cut and carry is the agricultural practice of cutting and carrying fodder crops away from the field that they are grown in to feed to livestock. Fodder trees, shrubs or grasses are sources for livestock feed in this practice. Cut and Carry is a key CSA practice where overgrazing is a problem. This practice takes pressure off grazing land at critical periods, reduces land degradation caused by livestock and increases soil organic matter, while still feeding livestock for productive outcomes. This practice can also be used in more intensive livestock production where livestock are kept housed for periods stretching from half a year to a year and improved nutrition is required. However, fodder production can be costly in terms of cultivation, requiring significant management over and above the livestock themselves. Fodder is collected from sites where it grows naturally, or it can be grown in fodder banks, hedges, boundaries, etc. Feeding livestock using this approach can ensure the supply of a large quantity of high quality and palatable fodder within a short time, as well ensuring soil is not disturbed through open grazing systems, thus a good CSA practice. It can be adapted to the farmer’s needs and can provide a way of introducing the farmer to the concept of improving livestock at the same time as conserving soil.