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To effectively implement subsurface fertilisation, the following should be carried out. Use of briquette machines to produce 1 to 3 grams of briquettes that are larger than conventional fertiliser granules is recommended:

• Step 1: Prior to application, dig small holes 7 to 10 centimetres deep along planting rows in drained rice paddy or regular field, ideally located in the centre between a location where four plants will be planted.
• Step 2: Place the briquettes in the whole, below the soil surface, and cover with dug soil.
• Step 3: Crops should be planted within seven days of fertiliser application.

Following are the main steps for making your own briquettes. Making briquettes leading up to planting is more effective, as they are not stored for too long. A standard briquette machine can be purchased for between USD 3,000 and USD 6,000.

• Step 1: Collect manure from cow and/or horse waste.
• Step 2: Allow the manure to moderately dry (so it is possible to handle), but not for extensive periods, otherwise it will degrade. Keep manure out of direct sunlight, or when processing, remove the outer layer before manufacturing briquettes, and do not leave exposed, especially during rainy periods.
• Step 3: Press manure into briquettes using briquette press machine – see directions below to make your own home-press.
• Step 4: Allow the briquettes to dry in a cool, dry location, and store for later use.

To make your own large manure briquette press using household items, follow the instructions below:

• Step 1: Cut the top off a straight-sided 2-litre plastic soft drink bottle at the top of straight side.
• Step 2: Obtain a tinned food can that is just smaller than the diameter of the bottle. Preferably leave tin un-opened.
• Step 3: Line the bottle with a plastic bag.
• Step 4: Place slightly damp manure (cow, horse or both) inside the bag, inside the bottle, filling the space.
• Step 5: Place tin on top of manure.
• Step 6: Place small plank of wood on top of the tin.
• Step 7: Place your foot on top of the piece of wood, and slowly apply pressure to the tin, pressing the manure down, adding more manure if it compresses further than the depth of the tin.
• Step 8: When the manure will compress no more, remove plank and tin, and draw the compressed manure from the bottle, removing the plastic bag to reveal a cylinder of compressed manure.
• Step 9: Slice with a sharp knife to discs 2 to 3 cm thick, and use a piece of 2 cm diameter metal or plastic pipe to punch a hole through each disc. Reuse the
• Step 10: Allow to air dry as individual rings in a cool dry place. As soon as they are strong enough, you can hang the rings on wire to continue to dry. Use in fields within a month of manufacture. The ring increases surface area, and speeds-up the drying process.

To effectively leverage banding and micro-dosing for maize and sorghum, the following should be carried out. When handling fertilisers, always ensure that safety precautions provided on the packaging are followed.

Banding – suitable when wishing to save on fertiliser expenditure, but still need to improve production of primary and secondary crops.

• Step 1: Plough the field using a draught animal-drawn or mechanised plough to carefully open furrows. Depending on availability of mechanised equipment, a narrow hoe can also be used if manual labour is favoured. This can reduce workload and minimise soil disturbance but may require more effort.
• Step 2: Count furrows and measure length to ensure that you have sufficient fertiliser for area, based on recommended application amounts (see packaging or see advice from supplier).
• Step 3: Apply fertilisers as a strip or line (band) along the furrow.
• Step 4: Turn furrow back over ensuring that the fertiliser is present at a depth of 5-8cm below the soil surface and covered by the soil. The basal fertiliser should not touch the seed as it may burn it and disturb its germination.

Micro-dosing: suitable when fertiliser is in short supply.

• Step 1: in the field, at the time of planting, prepare small pits 5 to 8 cm deep where each seed is to be placed.
• Step 2: measure approximately 6 grams of fertiliser using a bottle cap or a three-finger pinch.
• Step 3: place the micro-dose in the small pits.
• Step 4: cover fertiliser with a small amount of soil, then place the seed. Cover fully with soil and water, or allow rain to wet the ground.
• Where manure is available, Zai pits can be used to improve organic matter at the same time. Prior to planting, dig the small pit and fill with manure. When rains begin, fertiliser and seed are placed in the hole and covered.
• The practice includes the advantage of banding by placing the fertiliser below the seed but at a single point instead of a row.

To effectively leverage biological control and encourage natural predators:

• Step 1: Conduct regular monitoring using field walk-throughs and utilise bottle traps with various lures/baits to identify main pests on crops in order to identify any pests.
• Step 2: Once the pests have been identified, consult with national research institutes to identify the best natural predators, or biological control agents* to address the particular pests. It is critical to understand what options are available and costs associated with each option.
• Step 3: Implement according to advice received.
• Step 4: Monitor progress in terms of reduction in numbers and incidences.
• Step 5: Adjust the approach based upon observations from the fields.

A farmer must study the lifecycles of insect predators and be aware of pests that feed on his/her crops in order to identify the intervention that will the most effective in controlling pests at difference phases of their lifecycles. Farmers can create welcoming environments for certain predators to attract them to the field area

To effectively use mechanical bottle traps, the following should be carried out:

Bottle-trap

• Step 1: Obtain 2L plastic water or soft-drink bottles.
• Step 2: Rinse bottles thoroughly to avoid contents affecting lure.
• Step 3: Cut bottle horizontally using sharp scissors or knife, ensure that the top-half is slightly shorter than lower-half.
• Step 4: Turn the shorter top-half upside down and insert into lower-half ensuring the top- half does not touch the lower surface of the bottom-half.
• Step 5: Poke holes in both sides, penetrating both layers (top and bottom halves) and insert string, cord, or wire to create a handle.
• Step 6: Hang on tree branches or on thick wire or wooden stands around field perimeter and in larger fields within fields.

Specially designed all army worm traps can be purchased at agricultural suppliers. Farmers may also need a magnifying glass to identify insects.

Lures or bait

• Step 1: Identify the types of insect or pest you wish to lure, to ensure the correct mix.
  • For fall army worms, use a pheromone lure – which should be purchased from an agricultural supplier.
  • For maize stalk/stem-borers, again pheromone bait is the most effective.
  • Flies are attracted by sugar-based solutions, or protein (meat) based for carrion flies.
  • Fruit flies are attracted by ripe-fruit, cider vinegar, beer and wine.
• Step 2: Place 2 to 4 cm of lure at the bottom of the lower half of the bottle, depending on size of the bottle – the larger the bottle, the more lure. Ensure that the lure smell must be strong, but not too intense so that it attracts insects rather than chasing them away.
• Step 3: Use only one lure per bottle trap as more than one might cause contamination leading to ineffective attractants.
• Step 4: Clearly mark bottles indicating the type of lure in use – permanent marker pen.

Use of disposable gloves is advisable when handling lures.

Unopened pheromone lure packets should be kept in a cool, dry places – preferably a refrigerator.

To effectively implement  mechanical weeding:

• Step 1: Farmers should be able to identify weeds resistance to herbicides.
• Step 2: Examine fields to understand level of weed infestation – can they be easily and effectively removed using a hoe, without spreading seeds, or will manual weeding be necessary.
• Step 3: Attempt to quantify the amount of labour needed. Can the work be completed by the adults on the farm, or will additional labour be required? Will youths be involved in weeding? Will they miss school?
• Step 4: Begin removal of weeds, ensuring that weeds are uprooted and removed from the field to avoid regeneration. A hoe must have a long handle to be able to work effectively and the hoe blade must not be too sharp in order to cut weeds without going through crops and spreading seed and cuttings.
• Step 5: Weeding should take place a minimum of three times over the growing season – one week before planting crops, three weeks after planting (when the crop has two to three leaves), and two months after planting (milk-stage ). The aim is to reduce or eliminate the product of seeds in the weed plants.
• Step 6: Draft animal-drawn cultivators can reduce labour requirements but should only be used to cultivate soil to a shallow depth, retaining soil structure, but not disturbing soil. Weeds should be collected by hand afterwards. Deeper tilling or turning of the soil with the wrong implement may cause more harm than good.
• Step 7: Weeding must be sustained year on year to reduce prevalence. It is important to caution farmers that results may not be seen in significant reduction of plants until year-two of a weeding programme.
• Step 8: Obnoxious weeds – such as Striga, etc – should be burned once pulled, preferably away from the field, in order to eradicate their presence.

To effectively implement vaccination campaigns:

• Step 1: Networks that notify farmers about upcoming vaccination campaigns must be established to promote the significance of vaccinating animals across the country. This can be promoted through government bulletins and community radio, utilising extension networks, village level administration, and traditional leadership.
• Step 2: Vaccination parks for cattle can be set up by veterinary officials to restrain livestock movement that might increase disease spreading.
• Step 3: Goats and sheep can be vaccinated at their locations where officials will move from one village to another to reach more population.
• Step 4: Training of personnel is important to ensure that vaccination is carried out before seasonal outbreaks and prevent the spread of disease.
• Step 5: Commence campaigns one month prior to the season when outbreaks are most common or upon notice of a disease incidence.

To effectively implement biological control vectors:

• Step 1: Research common vectors in the local area and ensure that farmers are informed about the kinds, description, lifecycle and common habitats of these vectors, such as tsetse flies, ticks, biting flies.
• Step 2: Avoid allowing livestock access to dirty and damp environments as well as very bushy areas as these locations are common habitats for vectors.
• Step 3: Use of traps or even introduction of vector predators to livestock to manage vector spread could be used. This could include introducing epsilon traps for tsetse flies to promote vector control.
• Step 4: If rodents are found in or around livestock, introduce rodent control methods such as traps and/or rodent predators (cats, etc) and bury any remains far from livestock areas.
• Step 5: Fence off areas of high vector prevalence, such as stagnant water, ensuring that livestock do not access these areas.
• Step 6: Examine any rangeland to determine whether there are vectors in the vicinity such as biting insect, or locusts that may damage maize crops and fruit flies that damage tomatoes.
• Step 7: Community radio can be an effective method for extension officers to inform communities about outbreaks, or impending infestations.

To effectively implement manure collection, storage and treatment:

• Step 1: Use gloves before handling animal manure from any livestock.
• Step 2: Use shovels and wheel barrows to load and transport the material.
• Step 3: Store manure in a contained area, with a solid bottom (cement pad) to prevent runoff and leaching into local waterbodies or groundwater.
• Step 4:  Mix all types of manure with organic substances such as vegetable waste, garden debris, dead leaves, sawdust, wood ash, hay and straw etc. to add structure and other organic compounds to the soil.
• Step 5: Turn mixed manure over regularly to allow for combining of nutrients and further aeration.
• Step 6: Cut-up large particles of animal manure to no more than 10 cm in size.
• Step 7: Spread manure evenly on field a few weeks prior to planting or during planting. It can also be applied in micro-doses around crops and trees directly.

To effectively implement cut and carry systems:

• Step 1: Cut and carry commences with the cutting of the crop.
• Step 2: Cut crop when plants are fully mature (vegetative growth and plant sugars are at their peak). This ensures that protein, digestible energy and dry matter percentage are at their highest potential.
• Step 3: Fodder can be fed directly or dried as hay or preserved as silage to conserve its value and be fed to livestock during the dry season or other critical times throughout the year.

Traditional knowledge can also yield positive results in identifying sources of alternative dry season feeds, especially specific types of tree leaves and grasses. In mixed maize and livestock farming system, maize stovers can be utilised for more palatable feed supplements. To effectively improve palatability, the following steps should be carried out:

• Step 1: Where possible, mix grazing species to include browsers and grazers for uniform pasture use. Mixing livestock will reduce overgrazing on certain plants or plant types, distributing grazing pressure. This is a preventative measure. Over-seeding can be used  to fill in bare patches in fields, improve the density of pasture, establish improved grass varieties and enhance your grass vigour. It’s an easy way to improve an existing old or worn out, diseased or insect prone pasture by planting of grass seed directly into existing pasture, without tearing up the pasture, or the soil.
• Step 2: Speak to agricultural suppliers as palatability can be improved by enhancing the quality of the feed through addition of feed supplements.
• Step 3: If using silage from high moisture crops, it may be worth exploring feed flavourants as they mask the odours and flavours of alcohol formed as plant material ferments. Natural flavourants can include garlic, anise and black cumin, but artificial flavours are also available. Ratios for addition to fodder is very low - 0.5 to 1.5 %.
• Step 4: If using dry grass for feed, chopping and addition of molasses  and other concentrates can improve palatability of drier grasses; however, as it needs to be mixed with urea and water, guidance should be sought in terms of mix-ratios from a veterinarian to ensure that urea intake does not exceed recommended amounts.