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Hybridisation is the agricultural practice of genetically manipulating flora and fauna that differ in heredity. Hybridisation and mutations are the main source of hereditary variation and can result in the increased growth rate, manipulated gender ratios, increased yields, sterile animals, improved flesh quality, increase disease resistance and improve environmental tolerance. Intraspecific hybridisation method is used for livestock breeding whereby individuals of different breeds or strains are mated. Distant hybridisation for livestock is difficult to accomplish as hybrids are usually sterile. Hybrid animals are extremely difficult to produce and specialists often spend their careers attempting to create a new breed of animal. Hybridisation is plant species is more common and has a greater success rate than animal species, however successfully creating a hybrid species remains difficult to achieve. Specialists are trained on the gene sequence and different methods for accomplishing hybridisation. The development of hybrid flora and fauna is often undertaken to address a problem or issue. For example, to address socio-economic challenges agricultural researchers may attempt to produce a species of chickens who lay lager eggs or cows who produce more milk. Hybridisation is also applied to address the challenges of a changing climate including producing crops that are more drought resistant. Due to the research and development of these hybrid species they are expensive to access and often not available in remote areas. Traditional breeds are pure individual species with no DNA alterations. They are often endemic to an area and because of this have evolved and adapted to the geophysical area they are found. Thus, traditional breeds are often found in certain areas, and through traditional knowledge have been incorporated into local farming systems for generations. With an increasingly globalised world, it is difficult to maintain distinct traditional breeds as trade in species, seeds etc. is increasingly prevalent. However, with a new focus and dedication of farmers and researchers to explore indigenous knowledge there is an increased focus on reinvigorating the incorporation of traditional breeds of both flora and fauna.

Manure is organic matter that is used as an organic fertiliser in agricultural practices, conditioning and adding nutrients to soil, generally derived from animal faeces. Manure is the best source of fertiliser available to a farmer, as it can be readily available from livestock, and it a more environmentally friendly option over synthetic fertilisers. Animal manure, compost and green manure are the three different types of manure used in soil management. Manure is collected in different forms: liquid manure, slurry manure or solid manure, and treated in different systems depending on its state. Liquid and slurry manure are stored in liquid (slurry) manure storage systems whereas solid manure is stored in sacks in order to allow air and toxic vapours to move in and out, as well as to maintain the moisture content. The manure is collected and treated (as described below) in order to kill pests that may feed on crops during the application period. The manure is further cleaned to remove unwanted substances such as sticks, and large lumps formed in the manure.

Rotational grazing is a practice of moving livestock between different units of pasture in regular sequence to allow the recovery and regrowth of pasture plants after grazing. This facilitates management of the nutritional needs of the various types of livestock whilst maintaining pasture productivity. Management of intensive grazing/controlled grazing is a climate smart practice as it results in improved forage harvest, soil fertility, resistance to drought, reduced pasture weeds establishment, reduced wastage of forage and soil compaction.

Rotational grazing can also be combined with cut and carry approaches - when managed correctly; rotational grazing can provide enough forage growth early in the grazing season for producers to harvest feed for later use in some paddocks as rotation continues. Farmers can use temporary fence systems to manage the size of, and access to pastures.

Cut and carry is the agricultural practice of cutting and carrying fodder crops away from the field that they are grown in to feed to livestock. Fodder trees, shrubs or grasses are sources for livestock feed in this practice. Cut and Carry is a key CSA practice where overgrazing is a problem. This practice takes pressure off grazing land at critical periods, reduces land degradation caused by livestock and increases soil organic matter, while still feeding livestock for productive outcomes. This practice can also be used in more intensive livestock production where livestock are kept housed for periods stretching from half a year to a year and improved nutrition is required. However, fodder production can be costly in terms of cultivation, requiring significant management over and above the livestock themselves. Fodder is collected from sites where it grows naturally, or it can be grown in fodder banks, hedges, boundaries, etc. Feeding livestock using this approach can ensure the supply of a large quantity of high quality and palatable fodder within a short time, as well ensuring soil is not disturbed through open grazing systems, thus a good CSA practice. It can be adapted to the farmer’s needs and can provide a way of introducing the farmer to the concept of improving livestock at the same time as conserving soil.

Palatability - referring to plant features or conditions that encourage animals to feed on the plant when given a choice – is important as the ability or willingness of animals to feed on specific forage determines the efficiency of production of animal products. When feed is consumed in larger quantities, depending on its nutritive value, it helps increase milk and/or meat production. Plants with stiff and harsh leaves are generally not palatable to animals, unlike those with softer leaves and grass. The nutritive value of the plant matters when it comes to palatability. Palatability will be determined by the texture, aroma, succulence, hairiness, leaf percentage, sugar content and other factors. Moreover, leaves are more palatable than stems. Palatability of plants can be increased by grazing livestock at the optimal grass growing stage before seed formation, using a High Intensity, Low Frequency (HILF) grazing pattern which allows uniform grazing of pastures and gives an allowance for regrowth and thus overall, uniform soil cover. Addressing palatability is often of greater concern during dry season, when grazing/pasture is less common, and farmers have to rely on stored silage.

Fodder is the agricultural term for animal feed. Fodder trees and shrubs play an important role in bridging the gap between livestock feed requirements and the low quality and quantity of feeds available to many farmers. As well as providing feed or acting as a feed supplement for livestock, fodder trees and shrubs supply other benefits, such as firewood and erosion control. Fodder trees are either grown in-situ, from seed, and others are planted in nurseries and then transplanted to the field at the beginning of the rainy season. The transplanting method can be more successful than the direct planting - as high as 34 % better, but with a 24 % increase in cost per plant. Benefits of using fodder trees and shrubs as a dietary supplement include improved growth, health and reproductive capacity, and increased milk and meat production, mostly through increased protean uptake. Fodder trees and shrubs can be planted as living fences, field boundaries and in tree/shrub plantations. Popular species include African acacias, and Atriplex nummularia, Cassia petersiana, C. mopane, D. cineria, F. albida, Julbernadia paniculata, P. reclinata, Piliostigma thonningii, Swartizia madagascariensis and Trema orientalis.

Farmers of all categories can use this climate smart sustainable approach to produce both livestock and field crops to obtain improve benefits, improving nutrition for livestock animals, improving soil health, reducing cost of livestock feeding, and as a result increasing income

Carrying capacity defines the number of Animal Units (AU; head of cattle or number of sheep, goats or other animals) that can graze in a rangeland unit without exhausting the vegetation and soil quality – essentially optimally utilising resources. Optimum carrying capacity is where a given unit of rangeland can support healthy populations of animal species, while allowing an ecosystem to regenerate, thus creating a sustainable balance. The stocking rate - defined as the number of animal species grazing a unit of rangeland for a limited period - must be kept fixed on an average year, meeting the carrying capacity to allow regeneration, the fallen seeds to rejuvenate and the soil to recover. However, stocking rates can fluctuate depending on the nature of the vegetation, rainfall variability, herd composition and management system. If the conditions are not favourable for vegetation growth during drought season, the number of livestock or the grazing period must be adjusted to avoid overgrazing. Moreover, the purpose of livestock keeping, i.e. for milk, meat, or wool production, will determine the carrying capacity of a rangeland unit. Factors such as climatic zone, rainfall dependency, class of livestock (steer, dry cow, calves, lactating cow and bull, etc), health of grassland and animal species affect the stocking rate. While relevant in all climatic zones, it is more applicable in arid and semi-arid zones where rainfall is most scarce. This climate smart practice increases production (meat/dairy), increases pasture resilience to extreme climate hazards (drought) and enhances soil fertility.

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is a technique of restoring degraded land and monitoring restoration of the land involving the systematic regeneration and management of trees and shrubs from tree stumps, roots and seed. Degraded arid land often features left over indigenous plants, which if maintained and promoted to grow can improve pasture and crop lands while simultaneously encouraging re-growth of seeds, roots and shrubs. Key to this practice is the existence of living stumps, tree roots and seed that, if encouraged, will regrow. The land is protected from being completely cleared or further grazed and this allows trees to grow without disturbance. Once the stumps and trees start to grow, pruning and trimming of trees is required to allow space between trees and promote healthy long tree trunks. Once the trees have matured, intercropping can take place or livestock can be re-introduced to graze.

While requiring some investment in terms of effort, FMNR has climate smart advantages such as controlling rainfall/irrigation run-off, supporting water quality improvements, providing sources of timber or fodder, supporting habitant regeneration for pollinator insect species, acting as sun shade, and reducing soil erosion.

Agroforestry is a land management practice that combines the planting and management of trees and shrubs with crops and pasture, providing benefits of soil health, crop yields, resilience to climate change, biodiversity and economic opportunities. Agroforestry encompasses numerous practices, including silvo-pasture, agro-silvo cultural, and agro-silvo-pastural. One such successful agroforestry practice is silvo-pasture – the planting of trees and shrubs within livestock grazing pasture lands. Not to be confused with agrosilvopasture (combination of crops, shrubs/trees and livestock, silvopasture is the combination of trees and shrubs with pastural grazing land. The trees can be regularly or irregularly placed, and in addition to improving soil conditions in pasture lands, also provide production of protein-rich tree fodder for on farm feeding and for cut-and-carry fodder production. If growing larger species of tree, coppicing can also produce timber for building materials and firewood.

Boundary planting, also known as live fence planting, is a technique used to protect crops from the interference of people and animals that can disturb plant growth. Trees/shrubs are a good example of this approach as they can form a shield when planted along the boundaries of the garden or surrounding a planted field. The trees/shrubs act as wind break to shield plants against strong winds causing physical damage to plants themselves, or the removal of soil (erosion). Additional benefits include the use of branches for firewood or building materials, and the other parts of trees can be used as fodder, fruit or leave harvested for consumption, or for medicinal use. Tree/shrub spacing is critical, as trees that have dense canopies can conversely cause destructive down-drafts, negating the intended benefits. Boundary planting helps limit global warming by mitigating GHG emissions through reducing harmful gases such as, carbon dioxide, from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen.