Neutral

The use of chemical insecticides and pesticides can be expensive and therefore not an economically viable option for small scale farmers, while also not being climate smart – widespread use of pesticides and herbicides contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Encouraging natural predators can be an effective method for controlling and managing pests in some instances. With governments across the globe discouraging the use of chemical insecticides and pesticide products, biological control of pests is preferred and encouraged - using living organisms to control pests. Natural predators are insects that feed on pests without damaging the crop and can be found throughout the crops. Encouraging natural predators helps in supressing pests during their early and late lifecycles, improving crop production and reducing pollution caused by pesticides use. The introduction of water-fowl, such ducks in rice systems can be a highly effective form of biological control of pests. They enjoy aquatic habitats, consume insects and can even contribute to weeding as tear up weed plants as they look for food. Insect predators have different roles in controlling pests, there are predators that will control pests in the early pest lifecycle where they feed on their larvae and eggs while some are present at the late pest cycle where they feed on mature insects. Some species of ants are natural predators of stemborer pests, and wasp and some fly species larvae are parasitoids (larvae that feed on a host organism) prey on fall armyworm. One such wasp is the tiny (3 mm in length) Cotesia marginiventris which feeds on FAW caterpillars. The minute (0.5 mm in length) Trichogramma was species lays it’s eggs inside FAW eggs, killing the FAW larvae in the process. Earwigs (Dermaptera: Forficulidae, Carcinophoridae), ground beetles and ladybird beetles are also known to prey on FAW caterpillars. The issue with many of these solutions is volume of consumption, which may be too low to impact an infestation. Ants are the most important predators of FAW, as the communities consume larger quantities of FAW. However, pesticides drastically impact ant populations.

Bottle traps are an agricultural technology used to lure insects inside containers (bottles) containing bait of either food or chemical attractants. The objective is to lure pest insects to identify them for pest control, as part of overall pest monitoring, including field walks, observation and crop inspections. In larger fields they are used solely for pest identification. In smaller fields a number of traps can be used as a pest control method, trapping the insects, but this is not a common approach. Bottle traps must be installed in locations close to or amongst crops and across the farm in order to attract insects for identification and should be used throughout all cropping season to ensure that pests can be identified earlier. As a component of Integrated Pest Management, bottle traps with different lures or baits can be used to attract and identify most types of aphids and mites, fruit flies, stem borers, and fall army worm. While many of the lures and baits can be made at home or on the farm, pheromone-based baits need to be purchased from agricultural suppliers. While this introduces costs, bottle traps and lures can contribute significantly pest management, through early identification so appropriate action can be taken. This technology can contribute to climate smart agriculture objectives, as bottle traps and lures can reduce the amount of pesticides used, reducing greenhouse gas emissions; they can help with identifying new pests and insects as climates shift; and as pests are identified or reduced, productivity can increase. It is important for farmers and workers to keep records of pests identified to ensure that appropriate responses are enacted. There could be cases where infestation levels are low and the cost of taking action may be more that nominal crop losses. However, the opposite may be true, but decisions cannot be made without relevant information for extension workers to discuss with farmers.

Vaccination is the administration of immunisation injections to animals in order to prevent, control spread of diseases.  Vaccination campaigns involve administration of vaccine doses to a large population over a short period of time. The veterinary services departments or equivalent of respective countries normally gives free vaccinations to the farming community's animals for diseases which are of either economic significance to people's livelihoods or those that maybe of zoonotic importance (communicable to man from animals). These campaigns are usually fully funded by the government, NGOs to reduce disease outbreaks, prevent spread of an outbreak or improve national herd productivity, and are designed to reach as much livestock as possible. In most countries, free vaccinations are offer for the following diseases: Anthrax(-Cattle), Quarter evil or black quarter disease (Cattle), Contagious abortion (Cattle), Rabies (Dogs & Cats), Foot and Mouth Disease(Cattle)_ as per OIE designation in Disease Control Zones.

 For the message to reach farmers, community radios and involvement of traditional leadership can be used to encourage farmers to participate in vaccination campaigns.  This will help to gain trust and confidence from farmers for the campaign to be successful. Vaccination campaigns is a climate smart practice as it ensures a healthy population able to utilize feed efficiently with a reduced population discharge thus reduced GHG emission.

Resistant breeds Disease resistance is the reduction of pathogen growth in or in a plant or animal; denoting less disease development in a particular breed than that which is relatively susceptible and is specific to a particular strain of disease or attribute. Breeding resistant breeds  . Resistance” means the animal actively fights infection by various means. Building resistant breeds can be done through selection. Selective breeding, sometimes called artificial selection, where different breeds of animals with desired characteristics or attributes like resistance to. drought, heat, cold, salinity, flood, submergence and pests can be developed by selective breeding and thus able to relatively thrive in some conditions which would otherwise not be able to, e.g. This assists in the reduction of diseases, results in healthier productive animals and reduces risk of secondary infections in livestock. These breeds create a potential for more efficient conversion of feed into meat or diary, and thus a climate smart attribute since by reducing emissions per unit of production (proportionately less faeces are dropped per unit consumption of feed) as well as contributing to food security.,. In the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, local breeds are more resistant to many of the pests and diseases and may be the best option for some farmers in the Arid and semi-arid areas of the region.

Species diversification involves a shift from a single species of livestock to more species in an attempt to manage risk and explore more resilient livestock farming options. Species diversification can be introduced in response to changes in local environment/climate conditions, including increasing temperatures, unreliable sources of water and availability of pasture, etc. The aim of this approach is to explore the introduction of species that may be more viable and adaptable in changing local conditions thus improving production levels by keeping animals that will be productive under harsh weather conditions and sustain the quality of the produce. Diversification as a climate smart practice assists farmers with utilising available resources more effectively, e.g. mixing grazers and browsers. Species that react well to changing climatic conditions may cause a shift of demand from grazers to browsers. This practice mitigates disease control, can improve soil fertility and increase water management. Government policies can also influence farmers in diversifying their species with many countries dedicating agricultural research and extension to explore the introduction of different species (e.g. cattle to goats) to assist farmers. It is important that species that are introduced do not have an adverse impact on local fauna or the surrounding environment.

The Alternative breeds approach involves substitution of breeds, introducing a new (alternative) breed with a current breed to potentially increase production levels in a farm. Breed substitution involves genetic improvement of cattle and goats especially in dairy farming and meat production. Alternative breeds are introduced in order to ascertain competition between breeds based on health, fertility, performance, profits and management requirements. The substitution breeds are picked because there some traits that may be lacking in current breeds at the farm. For example, some farmers in Malawi who have introduced the Black Australop breed of chicken, either by crossbreeding with local chickens or replacing the local chicken altogether. This breed produces much more meat and lays more eggs, which increases farm production and income. This is a climate smart option as it introduces breeds that may require less water or can manage with lower quality feed – thereby reducing costs, and risks.

Assisted reproduction refers to artificial insemination, where semen is deliberately introduced to fertilise eggs in domestic animals. Artificial insemination helps in obtaining genetic improvements that yield higher production levels. This practice is more expensive but more efficient than natural reproduction. Artificial insemination reduces the risk of disease transmission and injuries or accidents during mating. Sperm duplication can be done from a single ejaculation to make hundreds of doses and distributed across farmers to have variety of breeds rather than off-spring from single bulls. This prevents inbreeding and promotes hybrid vigour among farmers’. In the southern African context, where most grazing is communal, use of bulls to improve breeds can be challenging as it is difficult to adopt a grazing system that will ensure good quality breeds are able to pass their progeny to the next generation, as young and likely non-superior bulls are likely to mate with cows during grazing. To achieve genetic improvement using open grazing requires controlled grazing systems, e.g. by use of paddocks to manage bulls grazing and mixing with cows.

Cut and carry is the agricultural practice of cutting and carrying fodder crops away from the field that they are grown in to feed to livestock. Fodder trees, shrubs or grasses are sources for livestock feed in this practice. Cut and Carry is a key CSA practice where overgrazing is a problem. This practice takes pressure off grazing land at critical periods, reduces land degradation caused by livestock and increases soil organic matter, while still feeding livestock for productive outcomes. This practice can also be used in more intensive livestock production where livestock are kept housed for periods stretching from half a year to a year and improved nutrition is required. However, fodder production can be costly in terms of cultivation, requiring significant management over and above the livestock themselves. Fodder is collected from sites where it grows naturally, or it can be grown in fodder banks, hedges, boundaries, etc. Feeding livestock using this approach can ensure the supply of a large quantity of high quality and palatable fodder within a short time, as well ensuring soil is not disturbed through open grazing systems, thus a good CSA practice. It can be adapted to the farmer’s needs and can provide a way of introducing the farmer to the concept of improving livestock at the same time as conserving soil.

Palatability - referring to plant features or conditions that encourage animals to feed on the plant when given a choice – is important as the ability or willingness of animals to feed on specific forage determines the efficiency of production of animal products. When feed is consumed in larger quantities, depending on its nutritive value, it helps increase milk and/or meat production. Plants with stiff and harsh leaves are generally not palatable to animals, unlike those with softer leaves and grass. The nutritive value of the plant matters when it comes to palatability. Palatability will be determined by the texture, aroma, succulence, hairiness, leaf percentage, sugar content and other factors. Moreover, leaves are more palatable than stems. Palatability of plants can be increased by grazing livestock at the optimal grass growing stage before seed formation, using a High Intensity, Low Frequency (HILF) grazing pattern which allows uniform grazing of pastures and gives an allowance for regrowth and thus overall, uniform soil cover. Addressing palatability is often of greater concern during dry season, when grazing/pasture is less common, and farmers have to rely on stored silage.

General Feed Supplements are used to increase nutrients in livestock diets, with the aim of maintaining or improving livestock health through adequate animal nutritional balance and therefore productivity of milk or meat. These supplements include vitamins, amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients. Supplementary feeding can becoming either a regular part of the production cycle to help match feed demand to feed supply, assisting livestock farmers meet production requirements as defined by market specifications, or reserved for times of shortage during dry spells and/or droughts. The extent to which supplementary feeding is applied depends on the farm/business objectives and seasonal conditions. This is especially true in areas of low-quality crop residues and low quality pasture land.

Feed supplements are presented in granular, powder or block form and used during milk production and fattening stages for meat production. However, if consumed in excess feed supplements can be harmful to animals causing toxicity and if persistent, death.