Medium

To effectively leverage flooding irrigation:

• Step 1: prepare the field, digging parallel furrows and raising beds with the excess soil. Crops are planted in beds, and the irrigation water will flow in the furrows.
• Step 2: Using a pump or gravity fed water storage, allow water to flow into the field, flooding furrows.
• Step 3: Insert a fine mesh or introduce a hessian sack at the in-flow point to trap weeds and pests.
• Step 4: Water release should be moderated so as not to flow too fast and erode beds, and too slow such that it remains trapped at the in-flow point.
• Step 5: Water release can be more effective if released in surges, taking advantage of infiltration rates and capillary action in soil.
• Step 6: Observe progress. Avoid leaving soil crusts, which will make water rush over.

A sustainable water source must be identified and a pumping/irrigation system should be used.

To effectively implement  short term reactive practices:

• Step 1: Inspecting the crop regularly and systematically by walking through the field following an M-shaped pattern will ensure that the farmer does not just look around the edges, but also inspects in the middle of the field.
• Step 2: Farmers should carefully examine the crops for any signs of pests/diseases. They may be able to identify the presence of pests or disease through observing the following:
  • If the plant is wilted.
  • Are the leaves more yellow than usual?
  • Are the crops smaller than usual?
  • Do the leaves have spots?
  • Have parts of the plan died?
• Step 3: Once the foreign specie has been identified, the farmer should employ a method to eradicate the issue thoroughly and immediately.

To effectively carry out rotational grazing practices:

• Step 1: Plan livestock grazing system, based on livestock types, stocking density, pasture crop hardiness and production, rainfall, soils and available alternative pasture fields and space, focusing on the nutritional and forage needs of the animals.
• Step 2: Use temporary electric fence systems to manage the size of the paddock.
• Step 3: Move livestock between paddocks every set number of days (two days; one week; one month).
• Step 4: Assess forage quality and quantity, regulating the acreage of access and control by implementing the electric fence system, which uses electrified fencing to determine which parts of the pasture that the livestock will access.
• Step 5: Monitoring efficacy of the system, changing rotation periods and extend recovery time for grazed land, if land becomes degraded.

To effectively implement cut and carry systems:

• Step 1: Cut and carry commences with the cutting of the crop.
• Step 2: Cut crop when plants are fully mature (vegetative growth and plant sugars are at their peak). This ensures that protein, digestible energy and dry matter percentage are at their highest potential.
• Step 3: Fodder can be fed directly or dried as hay or preserved as silage to conserve its value and be fed to livestock during the dry season or other critical times throughout the year.

To effectively carry out fodder tree-shrub production using a nursery environment – a covered or exposed separate planting area, often close to the farm so saplings can be tended easily - consider the following steps:

• Step 1: Identify one or more suitable species for fodder production, looking at suitable climatic, soil requirements, nutritional value and palatability, also considering source-plant (for cuttings) or seed availability.
• Step 2: Take cuttings of up to *1 metre in length from mature trees, cutting at an angle. Cutting should be planted within three days, and if transported, cutting end should be covered in wax or petroleum jelly.
• Step 3: Cuttings should be planted in 10 to 15 cm of soil either directly where they will grow or shallower in polythene planting cups.
• Step 4: Fodder crops should be planted as the rainy starts, providing sufficient water and mobilising enough nutrients to assist rapid growth.
• Step 5: Harvesting is again species specific*, and it is important to determine if drying prior to feeding, affects palatability or nutritional value.
• Step 6: Harvesting frequency should also be determined independently*as plants mature to ensure sustainable production that does not stunt long-term growth and productivity.
• Step 7: The farmer should consider how much fodder needs to be consumed immediately, how much dried as hay, and how much chopped and compressed to make silage.

Length of cutting, period prior to transplantation, and harvest quantities vary from species to species. Seek guidance from an agroforestry specialist or farmers that have experience with the process when selecting species, and how specifically to plant, manage and harvest fodder crops. An important element to understand is the volume of tree or shrub-based fodder each animal will require.

To effectively implement Carrying capacity improvement:

• Step 1: There is no standard equation to determine the carrying capacity of an area, as many variables apply and factors relevant within each context including size of land unit, amount, frequency and timing of rainfall seasons, type of vegetation, species of animal, etc.
• Step 2: Extension officers should aim to support farmers to continuously monitor rangeland status and realise the impacts of over-grazing and the benefits of finding an equilibrium.
• Step 3: Constant monitoring of the pasture and animals must be carried out throughout the year to check if stocking rate aligns with the carrying capacity of the land unit. If land degradation is identified, adjustments to stocking rates should be considered, in the context of season and landscape regeneration.
  • For communal grazing land, it is ideal to use Animal Units (AU) to calculate the relative grazing impact of different kinds and classes of domestic livestock and/or even common grazing wildlife species for one month (AUM = Animal Unit Months). This information should support collective decision-making regarding rangeland resources.

        Using a conversion table of, the AUE (Animal Unit Equivalent) and the formula:

        1) multiply the number of animals to be grazed on the pasture by AUE to determine total AU, then

        2) multiply the total AU by the number of months planned to graze (see formula below or

        Worksheet A of the Range Calculator).

        Formula: _____________ x _____________ = _____________ x _____________ = _____________

                        # Animals         AUE(table)     Animal Units (AU)   Months (M)           AUM

• Step 4: One option for effectively responding to carrying capacity challenges is shift or changing grazing species if high consumption species are placing pressure on a particular unit of land.

To effectively implement SRI practices:

• Step 1: Consider separation of high-quality seeds from low-quality seeds through soaking them in plain or salt water and the unviable seeds will float on the surface of the water.
• Step 2: Plant the seeds on an unflooded, raised bed with adequate drainage and fertile soil.
• Step 3: After 8-12 days, transplant single young seedlings into a grind pattern with wide spacing between hills (25 cm x 25 cm).
• Step 4: During crop growth period, control the flooding and research and follow alternate wetting and drying irrigation practices.
• Step 5: Consider application of compost and mineral fertiliser for nutrient enhancement.
• Step 6: Use a mechanical weeder for the control of weeds and maximisation of soil aeration.

To effectively implement drip irrigation:

• Step 1: A reliable water source must be available - natural (natural or through rain-water harvesting).
• Step 2: Acquire a pump system (approximately $US 100) that maintains enough pressure to deliver water through the system or an elevated tank.
• Step 3: Connect lines or hoses and laterals that run from the pump system across the planted fields.
• Step 4: Run lines or hoses with emitters (drippers) or small punctures at the surface level along planted crops or just below the surface providing water to the roots system of the plants.
• Step 5: Once the system is operable, the pump can be turned on and water dispersed as required by the nature of the crop and can also be implemented with supplemental irrigation strategies (Technical Brief 23).
• Step 6: Monitor the irrigation system regularly to ensure there are no malfunctions and the system is maintained. Crops that receive regular water can develop shallow root systems and any prolonged disruptions in service could have   significant impacts.
• Step 7: If applying drip irrigation in sloped conditions, follow the contours of the slope as outlined in Technical Brief 16.

Once a drip irrigation system is up and running, farmers can explore fertigation, the addition of soluble fertilisers into the irrigation system water for distribution directly to plants.

To effectively undertake deficit irrigation:

• Step 1: Determine critical growth cycle of desired crops.
• Step 2: Experiment with SI strategies to determine critical watering times prior to upscaling.
• Step 3: Strict management is required to determine the level of transpiration deficiency allowable without significant reduction in crop yields.
• Step 4: Farmers capable of implementing deficit irrigation must have access to the minimum required water to implement deficit irrigation.
• Step 5: Farmers must have access to a reliable water source, irrigation systems, including water distribution system, sprinklers and/or drip irrigation system.

To effectively implement solar irrigation:

• Step 1: To determine the solar pump system Crop water requirements, location, water sources etc. Do required research. Is water sourced from an above ground or below ground source?
• Step 2: Source required materials to implement a solar irrigation system from regional or international suppliers including:
  • Photovoltaic (PV) panels to generate electricity (80-300 W system depending on context);
  • a structure to mount the panels;
  • a pump controller;
  • a surface or submersible water pump; and
  • a distribution system or storage tank for water.
• Step 3: Identify funding sources as initial costs, as well as maintenance costs, must be considered and modelled prior to purchasing a system. There are regional and international solar irrigation producers.   These costs differ dramatically given the complexity of the context, starting at costs approximately USD $2,400 for equipment only. If drilling is necessary the cost increases significantly depending on depth, substrate etc.  Community-based investment, micro-leasing and rental services can be possible funding models to explore.
• Step 4: Determine whether there is sufficient solar irradiation for the proposed area – consult and specialist; and/or the national meteorological service.
• Step 5: Identify area suitable to install solar panels. The area should be easily accessible, and all trees/bush should be cleared. To determine most appropriate site and angle of panels, etc, consult an expert.
• Step 6: The availability of technical expertise must be considered before implementation to ensure that any technical issues do not result in long period of service disruption.

Maintenance costs and expertise should be considered before installing solar irrigation systems. A detailed cost benefit analysis is advisable. Other key technical considerations include: Legal permits to extract water from the source as water extraction may impact community watershed levels.