Low (HH)

Subsurface fertilisation is the agricultural practice of placing compressed balls of fertiliser, known as briquettes, deep in the soil. The balls of fertiliser are known to gradually release nitrogen, feeding the crops with the desired nutrients. This practice is usually carried out in flooded fields and although originally used for urea application in irrigated rice, it can be used with other fertilisers and crop types. Sub-surface fertilisation prevents the loss of nitrogen during floods as the application is placed 7-10 cm deep in the soil, converted to ammonium, which is much less mobile than nitrates. Only about 4% of nitrogen is lost to the environment when applying in the sub-surface, as compared to 35% when nitrogen is applied using the broadcasting application practice. Urea briquettes are small (~2 cm diameter), and home-made manure briquettes – more practical and applicable for crops other than rice – are larger – up to 10 cm in diameter.

This fertiliser application technique is considered climate smart as it maximises fertiliser inputs, increasing productivity and providing a mechanism for adapting to climate change by amending soil properties to remain productive.

While rotating crops or leaving fields fallow for several growing seasons is good practice, some farmers do not have this luxury, needing to continue planting season upon season. However, this practice will soon see soils depleted of nutrients. In these cases, use of green manure, and organic fertilisers is recommended. In. the last-resort cases where chemical fertilisers must be used, banding and micro-dosing are approaches that rationalise or minimise application. Banding is the agricultural practice of placing fertiliser in a row below soil surface, covering with soil and planting seeds above the fertiliser, whereas Micro-dosing – sometimes referred to as ring-placement - is the practice of placing small, more affordable amounts of fertiliser around each crop plant. Banding is a common method used for basal fertiliser applications and uses less fertiliser than broadcasting as it is applied in rows rather than throughout the whole field. Micro-dosing is applicable where plants are widely spaced and where soil increases the chances of nutrient loss due to leaching. While the use of chemical fertilisers is not strictly considered climate smart, these practices promote economic and rationalised application of fertilisers, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, whilst improving resilience in the face of climate change, and providing options for maintain agricultural productivity.

The use of chemical insecticides and pesticides can be expensive and therefore not an economically viable option for small scale farmers, while also not being climate smart – widespread use of pesticides and herbicides contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Encouraging natural predators can be an effective method for controlling and managing pests in some instances. With governments across the globe discouraging the use of chemical insecticides and pesticide products, biological control of pests is preferred and encouraged - using living organisms to control pests. Natural predators are insects that feed on pests without damaging the crop and can be found throughout the crops. Encouraging natural predators helps in supressing pests during their early and late lifecycles, improving crop production and reducing pollution caused by pesticides use. The introduction of water-fowl, such ducks in rice systems can be a highly effective form of biological control of pests. They enjoy aquatic habitats, consume insects and can even contribute to weeding as tear up weed plants as they look for food. Insect predators have different roles in controlling pests, there are predators that will control pests in the early pest lifecycle where they feed on their larvae and eggs while some are present at the late pest cycle where they feed on mature insects. Some species of ants are natural predators of stemborer pests, and wasp and some fly species larvae are parasitoids (larvae that feed on a host organism) prey on fall armyworm. One such wasp is the tiny (3 mm in length) Cotesia marginiventris which feeds on FAW caterpillars. The minute (0.5 mm in length) Trichogramma was species lays it’s eggs inside FAW eggs, killing the FAW larvae in the process. Earwigs (Dermaptera: Forficulidae, Carcinophoridae), ground beetles and ladybird beetles are also known to prey on FAW caterpillars. The issue with many of these solutions is volume of consumption, which may be too low to impact an infestation. Ants are the most important predators of FAW, as the communities consume larger quantities of FAW. However, pesticides drastically impact ant populations.

Bottle traps are an agricultural technology used to lure insects inside containers (bottles) containing bait of either food or chemical attractants. The objective is to lure pest insects to identify them for pest control, as part of overall pest monitoring, including field walks, observation and crop inspections. In larger fields they are used solely for pest identification. In smaller fields a number of traps can be used as a pest control method, trapping the insects, but this is not a common approach. Bottle traps must be installed in locations close to or amongst crops and across the farm in order to attract insects for identification and should be used throughout all cropping season to ensure that pests can be identified earlier. As a component of Integrated Pest Management, bottle traps with different lures or baits can be used to attract and identify most types of aphids and mites, fruit flies, stem borers, and fall army worm. While many of the lures and baits can be made at home or on the farm, pheromone-based baits need to be purchased from agricultural suppliers. While this introduces costs, bottle traps and lures can contribute significantly pest management, through early identification so appropriate action can be taken. This technology can contribute to climate smart agriculture objectives, as bottle traps and lures can reduce the amount of pesticides used, reducing greenhouse gas emissions; they can help with identifying new pests and insects as climates shift; and as pests are identified or reduced, productivity can increase. It is important for farmers and workers to keep records of pests identified to ensure that appropriate responses are enacted. There could be cases where infestation levels are low and the cost of taking action may be more that nominal crop losses. However, the opposite may be true, but decisions cannot be made without relevant information for extension workers to discuss with farmers.

Resistant varieties are new crop varieties that improve yield production, are resistant to pests and diseases, more tolerant to drought, salinity or other changing or undesirable environmental conditions. Crop plants used within this practice are usually only resistant to a limited number of undesirable characteristics e.g. pests or drought – but usually not both, and some other desirable traits may be lost while others may be strengthened. Hence, careful selection of candidate species must be undertaken. Resistance varieties common in southern Africa include drought resistant maize, sorghum, rice and cowpea (beneficial legume for intercropping) strains, striga (witch weed) resistant sorghum and maize strains, and others all help farmers adapt to changing climate conditions, by being able to farm crops that survive the increasingly variable climate, which can result in less rainfall, or the presence of new pests. Striga results in crop losses totalling over USD 1 billion per year, whereas research has shown that planting climate resilient maize varieties can lead to up to a 25 % increase in crop yields.

Exploring new pest or drought resistant varieties in a regional will require demonstration and testing in ‘test plots’, so extension workers can ensure that the outcomes are aligned with farmers wants/needs/tastes, and so farmers are familiar with the new varieties before they are mainstreamed. Acceptance of new varieties, and any changes is traits will be critical, as resistant varieties is a key intervention for climate adaptation in southern Africa, as they will allow farmers to remain productive for longer under challenging conditions, and while different crops altogether are investigated.

Hybridisation is the agricultural practice of genetically manipulating flora and fauna that differ in heredity. Hybridisation and mutations are the main source of hereditary variation and can result in the increased growth rate, manipulated gender ratios, increased yields, sterile animals, improved flesh quality, increase disease resistance and improve environmental tolerance. Intraspecific hybridisation method is used for livestock breeding whereby individuals of different breeds or strains are mated. Distant hybridisation for livestock is difficult to accomplish as hybrids are usually sterile. Hybrid animals are extremely difficult to produce and specialists often spend their careers attempting to create a new breed of animal. Hybridisation is plant species is more common and has a greater success rate than animal species, however successfully creating a hybrid species remains difficult to achieve. Specialists are trained on the gene sequence and different methods for accomplishing hybridisation. The development of hybrid flora and fauna is often undertaken to address a problem or issue. For example, to address socio-economic challenges agricultural researchers may attempt to produce a species of chickens who lay lager eggs or cows who produce more milk. Hybridisation is also applied to address the challenges of a changing climate including producing crops that are more drought resistant. Due to the research and development of these hybrid species they are expensive to access and often not available in remote areas. Traditional breeds are pure individual species with no DNA alterations. They are often endemic to an area and because of this have evolved and adapted to the geophysical area they are found. Thus, traditional breeds are often found in certain areas, and through traditional knowledge have been incorporated into local farming systems for generations. With an increasingly globalised world, it is difficult to maintain distinct traditional breeds as trade in species, seeds etc. is increasingly prevalent. However, with a new focus and dedication of farmers and researchers to explore indigenous knowledge there is an increased focus on reinvigorating the incorporation of traditional breeds of both flora and fauna.

General Feed Supplements are used to increase nutrients in livestock diets, with the aim of maintaining or improving livestock health through adequate animal nutritional balance and therefore productivity of milk or meat. These supplements include vitamins, amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients. Supplementary feeding can becoming either a regular part of the production cycle to help match feed demand to feed supply, assisting livestock farmers meet production requirements as defined by market specifications, or reserved for times of shortage during dry spells and/or droughts. The extent to which supplementary feeding is applied depends on the farm/business objectives and seasonal conditions. This is especially true in areas of low-quality crop residues and low quality pasture land.

Feed supplements are presented in granular, powder or block form and used during milk production and fattening stages for meat production. However, if consumed in excess feed supplements can be harmful to animals causing toxicity and if persistent, death.

Non-Conventional Feeds (NCF) are either traditional or commercial animal feed-types that are not traditionally utilised as animal feed. These feeds are generally in one of two categories: by-products of agroecological industrial processes, or plants/plant materials from other processes. Examples of industrial by-products include groundnut cake, molasses and cotton seed meal, which are outputs from other processes and are found in proximity of manufacturing points, but often have a short shelf-life. Plant materials can be vegetable peels or locally available crop residues such as maize stalks and other remaining parts of harvested plants not consumed by humans. NCF decrease the demand of land to grow fodder, act as an alternative source for animal feed, resulting in the decrease of food competition between animals and humans ensuring food security. Furthermore, the use of bi-products optimises the use of raw materials and can increase profitability for the producer and the farmer.

Grains are stored to reduce the opportunities for loss, damage or infestation by pests. On the farm grain storage can be short-term (>3 months) before it is moved to the supply chain, long term (3-12 months) while farmers store it for home consumption, to sell when prices are more favourable or for planting in the next season. During this phase of post-harvest processing, grains can be stored in bags, silos or other bulk storage containers. Bag storage utilises permeable sacks that will allow air movement in and out of the bag. Structures can be built to store grains and solid-wall bins or silos should be used in areas where grains can be dried properly. Other options include airtight underground pits, steel bins, while concrete silos and warehouses can also be used as storage options. While storing grains to ensure favourable storage, facilities should be kept clean, covered, and never exposed to the elements.  However, pest control measures need to be established, such as adhering to acceptable grain moisture content levels at storage to deter insect infestation, as pests (rodents, insects, etc.) can devastate grains in storage. Physical storage options are built to meet the demand and supply of grains season-to-season and to make seeds available for the next planting season.

Drying techniques are agricultural practices applied to assist with the balance of moisture in grains post-harvest, determined by a combination of ambient temperature and relative humidity. Spoiling due to insufficiently dried grain is one of the main causes of grain deterioration, loss in grain quality, and thus market value. Grains have the capability to absorb or evaporate moisture, and a balance of moisture content in the air and grains should be sought to achieve an Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). EMC prevents the formation of moulds that may affect the quality of grains, spread of pests and germination of grain seeds. After harvest, transportation and threshing, grain needs to be further dried to be preserved. Natural drying techniques are based on ambient air circulation to reduce the moisture content of the grain before storage. Artificial drying techniques apply fans and/or heating elements to move air and maintain constant temperatures .Natural drying (sun drying) is the preferred, commonly used agricultural technique in southern Africa and does not require use of machinery. Drying techniques preserve the contents of seeds thus assuring sustainable agricultural productivity and the practice as climate smart.