Neutral

The process of saving one’s own seed involves the collection of seeds from the best performing (most yield, largest size, early maturing or other desired traits, etc.) plants from one season to plant them in the next cropping season. The aim of this practice is to select seed from parent plants in the hope that desired characteristics are replicated in the next generation of plants. Seeds that have been selected will likely be adapted to local farming conditions including soil types and rainfall amounts. The seed most likely to carry intergenerational traits (size, colour, water use efficiency, and other biophysical traits) are open-pollinated (those plants pollinated by birds, insects, wind, etc.) seed varieties as they are cross-pollinated by the same type of crop. Different crops have different reproduction cycles with some species flowering or producing seeds annually, biennially or on a perennial basis. Thus, understanding seeding time is important for farmers aiming to save their own seeds. Almost as important as selecting the correct seeds is seed storage, which must be done correctly to avoid spoiling and losses. Seed saving is a cost-effective measure for farmers to employ and helps them avoid having to buy seeds at market on an annual basis. Seed trading or community seed banks provide a climate resilience strategy as they secure farmers access and availability of diverse, locally adapted crops and varieties while enhancing indigenous knowledge. Often crops from hybrid seeds or improved varieties do not generate viable seeds ensuring that seeds cannot be saved and must be purchased on an annual basis.

Selecting crop varieties is a key resilience strategy for farmers facing changing climatic conditions. There are two types of seed varieties: traditional varieties and improved varieties. Traditional varieties have been selected by farmers for their special characteristics and due to many years of selecting the strongest seeds over generations, they are generally adapted to local natural conditions. In some respects, these seeds increase the chance of getting a return on investment in stable environments, but are less likely to mitigate GHG emissions. Traditional crop varieties are usually selected by small scale farmers due to their relatively low cost and availability and can be saved and replanted for further growing seasons. Improved varieties are seeds that have been altered by scientific processes to incorporate desired characteristics using techniques such as following pure line breeding, classical breeding, hybridisation and molecular breeding. Desirable characteristics include higher yields, shorter growing seasons, drought resistance, salt tolerance, etc. Improved varieties are selected when facing adverse conditions such as higher temperatures and/or less predictable rainfall and normally result in the efficient use of water reducing use of energy for irrigation systems. While these seeds offer improvements they are usually commercial products and as a result can be expensive. Furthermore, as they are sold by seed companies availability is driven by demand. Most seed companies protect enhancements using  intellectual property rights that legally limit seed saving and replanting of seeds. In fact, many of these seed varieties have been designed to prevent plants to be reseeded. Thus, seed varieties afford farmers the opportunity to incorporate crops that can be planted to exploit their unique characteristics – traditional or improved, assisting farmers to grow crops that are resilient to changing climates to produce crops that are market-appropriate.

Weeds are any unwanted plant species that compete with crops for sunlight, water, nutrients, air and space, hindering crop growth and in some cases are even toxic to crop plants. Weed control measures can be applied in an integrated manner to help prevent the growth and spread of weeds in agricultural systems. An integrated weed management approach aims to restrict weed growth until a crop is well established and can outcompete weeds. This integrated approach includes biological, chemical, cultural and/or physical tactics to combat weed spread and growth and these practices can be more cost effective than herbicide applications. Integrated weed management is climate smart as it combines multiple climate smart practices that increase farmers resilience, limits GHG releases and increases productivity. Options for weed control include crop rotation, intercropping, cover crops (which can be used as green manure or mulch), mulching, seed-bed preparation, livestock grazing, seed/variety selection, mowing, and hand-weeding.

The application of integrated weed control is climate smart as it reduces herbicide application and reduction in machinery usage (i.e. through no-tillage practices).

Terraces are cross-slope barriers that have been cut into slopes offering surfaces that are flat or slightly sloped. Terraces are designed to minimise erosion and increase the infiltration of runoff water. In addition, terracing allows for a maximum of area for farming and cropping by cutting into slopes, creating steps on a hillside. Riser walls are retained by growing trees or grasses, using stones or compacted soil to manage runoff and ensure stability. Terracing involves significant planning and labour to implement and maintain. Labour should be coordinated and planned to ensure that terracing is not carried out in an ad hoc manner, and labour to maintain the terraces is available annually. Terracing is suited to areas with severe erosion hazards, deep soils, on slopes that do not exceed 25 degrees and are not too stony. Community action is often required, as terracing is a landscape-level solution that can only be implemented if all parties agree and convert slopes together. Implementing individual terraces or terraced sections can negatively impact the entire hillside.

Trash lines are the incorporation of lines of organic materials spread across contours of hilly agricultural fields - strips of heaped straw or weed materials that have been collected during primary cultivation of the land. Trash lines have been found to direct runoff in field and act as an erosion control method. Through decomposition, the trash line material acts as a type of compost adding nutrients to the soil, adding more organic material year on year, should the farmer continue to build this line. This is a climate smart approach as it contributes to soil health, capturing more nutrients and carbon in the soil, and in turn promoting sustainable agricultural productivity. In changing climates, implementation of this practice can contribute to adaptation strategies.

Mulching is the process of introducing vegetative material to the surface of soil in fields to provide soil cover, reduce evaporation, maintaining an even soil temperature and ultimately improve organic content in soil. These materials can include grasses, crop residues, tree bark and other plant materials, even including seaweed if it is available. These materials should be well decomposed, and mixed well into the top soil when the growing season is over. Mulching improves soil fertility by creating a positive soil environment favouring microbial activity and other promoting beneficial organisms such as earthworms, increases moisture retention, stabilises soil temperatures (protecting soils from both heat and cold), reduces soil erosion and restricts weeds. The temperature control keeps roots and plant bulbs cool in the summer and warm in the winter. It can be utilised on all scales of farm, depending upon the availability of input mulch materials. It is considered a climate smart approach as it sequesters carbon in the soil and promotes soil health which in turn maintains agricultural productivity and the ability of a farmer to adapt to climate changes. In some cases, shredded plastic is sometimes used as a synthetic soil cover, but this is not considered climate smart, as it does not integrate organic matter to the soil, instead introducing plastics.

Erosion control measures are practices designed to reduce runoff water and wind erosion that wash away top soil and nutrients, degrading soil biodiversity and reducing agricultural productivity. Erosion is a natural, biophysical process resulting from rainfall, water flows, wind, or storm runoff. Erosion is integral to the formation of soils, however human and animal activity, including agriculture and clearing of land, can accelerate erosive processes, drastically impacting landscapes, soils (e.g. quality) and watercourses. In addition, erosion control measures can contribute to reducing rainfall runoff, increased water infiltration into the soil, and attenuates flooding. The intensity of rainfall is directly correlated with the severity of soil erosion; hence, this is a significant problem across the Southern African region as much of the rainfall in the region is episodic, and intense. To prevent or reduce erosive processes control measures can be incorporated into farming systems to reduce or reverse degradation and potentially restore or improve soil quality. Erosion control measures aim to mitigate soil erosion and improve soil fertility by reducing flow and speed of run-off to avoid soil being washed away. Erosion control can be initiated through a number of interventions, including, but not limited to, intercropping (e.g. planting cover crops), mulch, conservation tillage and reforestation, as well as terracing, soil bunds, etc.. Example: Stone Bunds. Lessons learned from West Africa show that stone bunds constructed along contour lines in fields and in key run-off locations can significantly reduce run-off, particularly in steeper agricultural fields. The stone lines reinforce the soil structure in the field following the contours of the land, reducing the speed and volume of run-off, thereby reducing the likelihood of erosion. This is an appropriate technology to implement on slopes up to 15 to 20 degrees. This is considered a climate smart practice as it maintains soil structure and nutrients, in turn retaining carbon in soil, enabling farmers to adapt to climate changes and sustain agricultural productivity.

Many farmers grow one crop repeatedly on the same field over-and-over again. Crop diversification is the cultivation of several crops of a different species or variety (of one crop) in one plot at any given point in time. The main advantage of implementing crop diversification is that it enhances household climate resilience through reducing risk of monocrop failure due to pests, disease, low rainfall and other climate risks.

Employing crop diversification may also provide opportunity of more diversified income sources and dietary diversity. Farmers can simultaneously grow both food crops, fodder and cash crops in an attempt to increase household food security and improve household incomes. There are also indications that crop diversification can increase crop productivity, which for poorer households can have significant positive impacts. For better capitalised farms, return on specialisation may be higher, and will likely not realise the desired returns.

Monocropping in one field for many subsequent years will cause nutrient depletion in that field and lead to less productive returns. Crop Rotation is the process of planning the planting and harvesting of different crops planted on the same field over subsequent growing seasons, allowing less nutrient depletion and if applied effectively, increasing soil nutrients through nitrogen fixing etc. This farming practice also assists with weed control, prevents soil erosion, and is the most efficient and economical way to break the biological cycles of plant pests and diseases, mitigating the effects of pests/disease as they become more prevalent due to climate change and helping farmer diversify crop production.  Research has shown that rotation between nitrogen consuming crops such as maize and nitrogen depositing plants such as soybeans can provide a healthy balance of nutrients. This farming practice is advantageous for smallholder farmers who are less able to leave fields fallow for extended periods of time, as well as for commercial farmers wanting to reduce pesticide use. It is seen as climate smart as it breaks pest and disease cycles, returning nutrients to the soil, thereby supporting more predictable yields in times of climate pressure, and locking more carbon in the soil.

Soil acidification is a widespread problem across southern Africa, often driven by monocropping with cereals and occurring as a result of erosion, compost decomposition and soil leaching. Applying lime to soil is regarded as a key management practice in agriculture to balance pH, enhancing crop productivity, water penetration and absorption of major nutrients by crops. Most crops grow best in soils with a pH between 6.5 and 6.8. Acidity constrains crop growth below pH levels of 5.5. Agricultural lime is limestone mined as a rock that is crushed into various particle sizes ranging from course to fine particles and can be applied in areas where there is high soil-acidity due to high levels of manganese and iron. Lime texture also determines the speed of absorption in the soil; that is, fine-lime reacts more quickly than more granular lime. However, the use of lime must be managed appropriately to avoid losing other nutrients in the soil. This practice is considered climate smart as it assists with adaptation strategies through improvement of soil fertility, whilst improving productivity at modest application rates, noting that annual application is not recommended.