Neutral

Without a topographic survey, this technology may require trial and error to begin with, to see how rainfall and run-off responds to the contouring. To effectively implement erosion control measures the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Perform a thorough local study of the landscape, soils, land use and erosive processes that most impact the area: steep slopes, flood plains, high winds etc.
• Step 2: Source a large number of stones, preferably five to ten centimetres square blocks (from a quarry) or five to ten-centimetre diameter cobbles (from a river-bed). You will need 30 to 50 tonnes of stone per hectare for contour bunds approximately 300 metres long.
• Step 3: Mark out contours, as discussed in Technical Brief 16 Contour Planting.
• Step 4: In larger fields with shallower slopes, place stones in rows of two along contour line, interlocking alternately, burying the lower half. The bunds can be between 25 and 40 metres apart. On steeper slopes, stack and bury stones against or in vertical/near vertical walls of contours much closer together (five to ten metres apart) to reinforce them.
• Step 5: Make sure that stone bunds follow the contours from one side of the field to the other, ensuring that no ‘pour’ points (larger gaps) exist along the way, lining the drainage channel or weir from one contour to the next with stones to avoid or reduce scouring in these locations.
• Step 6: Following, and if possible, during rainfall events, check the stability of the slope, adjusting stone bunds where necessary.
• Step 7: At the end of the rainy season and again following harvest, review the performance of the technology, and prepare for the next growing season.

Switching to no-till or reduced tillage should be planned at least a year in advance so preparations can be made necessary implements can be obtained. Implements should match farm labour availability. You will also need to decide if no till or reduced tillage methods are appropriate based on farm area and desired crops, and start with a small area to determine feasibility. Cereal and legume crops are suitable for no tillage while vegetables and other crops often require some tillage – i.e. reduced tillage.

There are two forms of no-tillage, conventional and organic. Conventional no-tillage includes the application of herbicides to manage weeds, prior to and after planting. Organic no-tillage does not incorporate the use of herbicides, but includes other methods for controlling weeds, including cover crops, crop rotation and free-range livestock. Organic no-tillage is more suitable as it assists mitigate any climate change impacts on the farm.

No till

• Step 1: Prepare fields using conventional (herbicide application) or organic processes include cover crop (Technical Brief 15) and crop rotation (Technical Brief 09).
• Step 2: Test soils – aiming to balance nutrient and pH levels. In the case of acidic soils, add small amounts of lime each year.
• Step 3: Avoid soils with bad drainage, as they become water-logged.
• Step 4: Level the soil surface, removing uneven areas to assist even seed planting.
• Step 5: Eliminate soil compaction.

Reduced Till

• Step 1: This approach is similar to regular tillage, but with significantly less disturbance of the soil. Tilling is only done where needed, and the rest of the soil is undisturbed.
• Step 2: Strip-tillage or zone-tillage involves tilling and seeding in 15 cm strips leaving areas in-between undisturbed.
• Step 3: Ridge-tillage involves preparing ridges post-harvest and letting them settle over time to be planted the next seeding period; with ridges not more than 60 cm apart.

More information of each of these specific practices should be sought prior to implementation.

Crop rotation is a complimentary farming method when practicing no-tillage, as it promotes maximum biomass levels for permanent mulch cover, while controlling weeds (with pre- and post-emergent herbicides), pests, and diseases, as well as improving soil nutrition and fertility.

To effectively undertake crop diversification:

• Step 1: Identify potential market opportunities for alternative crops in local/sub-national/national area.
• Step 2: Determine crops that farmer wishes to plant and the purpose whether it be household food stuff, cash crop or fodder crop.
• Step 3:  Establish local demonstration plots at the local level growing non-traditional crops that have market demand and can be incorporated into local farming systems.
• Step 4: Prepare smaller plot through clearing and weeding. CCARDESA recommends a no tillage approach (Technical Brief 12).
• Step 5:  Secure seeds of desired crops and follow planting guidance if the crop has not been previously grown. Sow seeds on small plot.
• Step 6: Track progress of crop and harvest and process as required.
• Step 7: Discuss cost benefit of growing diversified crops with farmers.
• Step 8: Farmers should gradually integrate a new crop(s) into their farming system to ensure that they are comfortable with diversifying at a greater scale.

An example of crop rotation is maize, followed by a legume. Grain SA has reported a 12 % increase in maize production following rotation with legumes such as cowpea. Furthermore, the legume yields often increase following rotation with the grain crop, and sometimes responding differently to the crop type. For example, soybean yield has been measured at 20 % higher following sorghum than maize. To effectively undertake crop rotation:

• Step 1: Determine which cereal crops and legumes are available in the area of interest.
• Step 2: Prepare land through clearing, weeding. No-tillage approaches are preferable (Technical Brief 12).
• Step 3: Plant a leafy cereal crop (maize or sorghum) and let the crop mature and harvest once ready. Once harvested, bend stalks over to increase biomass.
• Step 4: If possible, allow field to fallow for a short period. If this is not possible, practice cover cropping (Technical Brief 15).
• Step 5: Prepare land again, and sow second crop, usually a legume to improve soil structure and fertility. Harvest crop once ready.
• Step 6: Repeat process. It is possible to include more than two crops into crop rotation if desired.

It is advisable to carefully monitor yield for demonstration purposes, run test plots if necessary.

To effectively implement relay cropping, the following steps should be carried out:

• Step 1: Test/experiment with locally available crops to determine if they are complementary and can grow concurrently - cereal crops and legumes are complementary and can generally grow concurrently.
• Step 2: Prepare land through clearing, weeding and a no-tillage approach (Technical Brief 12).
• Step 3: Plant cereal crop first according to normal planting season schedule –during rainy season. Space this cereal crop 70 cm by 50 cm apart.
• Step 4: Prior to cereal harvest, plant the legume crop between cereal crop rows with spacing based on legume planting efficiencies (researched prior to planting for optimum growth).
• Step 5: After cereal has been harvested, bend the dried stalks down to provide more ground cover.
• Step 6: When legumes are ready for harvest, collect the productive pod/seed/bean/nut and leave the stalk uprooted in the field to maximise ground cover.

To implement intercropping practices:

• Step 1: Consider soil properties - has the soil been mono-cropped and/or is it leached?
• Step 2: Consider crop characteristics – will crops be competing for nutrients, water space, sunlight or will they be mutually beneficial adding nutrients
• Step 3: Prepare land through clearing and weeding. A no-tillage approach is recommended – see Technical Brief 12.
• Step 4: Select whether the farmer should undertake Mixed Intercropping (Good for smaller plots however plants compete) or Row/Strip Intercropping (crops less likely to compete). See also KP07 – Climate Smart Planting Options for Maize and Sorghum.
• Step 5: If mixed intercropping is selected, sow two crops simultaneously mixing seeds to together while planting. Harvesting may not be a simultaneous process as different crops have different growth rates and seasons.
• Step 6: If row/strip intercropping plant two or more crops in the same field but in separate rows patterns. Rows should be spaced 50 cm apart and can have a row of 1:1 or 2:1 ratio of cereal crop to legume.
• Step 7: Harvest as individual crops require, be careful not to disrupt other crops that have not yet matured.

In addition to agricultural inputs and the following technical implementation steps, ISFM requires the farmer to consider farm size (land area), and property rights (land tenure) to ensure that investments are efficient and sustainable.

To implement ISFM approaches, the following should be considered:

• Step 1: Prepare a needs assessment based on understanding of farm challenges – low or declining productivity, soil fertility, low organic content, etc
• Step 2: Measure fields that require attention to understand volumes of inputs required.
• Step 3: Develop (or update) an agricultural calendar to use as a platform for discussion between farmer(s) extension officer(s).
• Step 4: Develop plan and schedule/programme of locally appropriate ISFM interventions between farmer(s) and extension officer(s), obtaining guidance from agricultural suppliers where necessary (lime application, etc). As ISFM is a blended approach, the plan should consider short and medium to long term interventions and outcomes.
• Step 5: Examine cost implications of the plan, revising where necessary based upon available resources, and if necessary/available apply for credit to fund investments.
• Step 6: Assess labour requirements within the ISFM plan to ensure that they can be fulfilled, and considerations of gender and youth have been accommodated – women are not expected to do the majority of work, and children are not missing school.

To effectively implement biochar the following should be carried out. Tools required – shovel and a metal sieve.

• Step 1: Acquire charcoal from local vendor, and sieve or grate the charcoal into fine material in a pile. Biochar should not be applied to soil directly after production. It should be allowed to ‘rest’ for one to two months.
• Step 2: Rotate the pile every 2-days for a period of up to 10-days (total).
• Step 3: Prior to application, aim to wet (but not waterlog) biochar stock with water or preferably urine. If done when still warm, it will fracture the charcoal, increasing surface area for absorption.
• Step 4: Spread the biochar evenly across soil prior to planting and let it settle or mix with the top layer of soil. One to three kg/m2 is recommended, depending on the degree of soil required.
• Step 5: Regularly monitor soil pH, water retention and soil texture, keeping records if relevant to ensure that improvements are realised, and negative impacts do not arise.

Biochar can be produced on-farm, but will require collection of plant and waste feedstock (see above). Biochar can be produced on-farm using a trench. A biochar trench is a dug recess where crop residues are burned to create charcoal. Tools required are a shovel and one or more roofing sheets (one-metre long).

• Step 1: Dig trench 50 to 70 cm deep, and one to two metres long, ensuring that roofing sheets fully cover the trench void.
• Step 2: Start a fire in one end of the trench, throwing in loose crop residue or other organic waste, keeping the fire under control (not creating large flames and smoke).
• Step 3: Keep fire burning until trench is full of char.
• Step 4: When the trench is full, and flames have burned-out, cover the trench with the roofing sheet, sealing edges with loose soil, trampling it down to ensure closure.
• Step 5: Leave the covered trench for five to six hours to extinguish.