Medium

To effectively undertake leverage traditional seed characteristics, or improved crop varieties  the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Prior to selecting seed varieties, perform a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) to identify how crops will perform and their benefits compared to the costs of the seed, considering the following:
  • Local  farming system(s): land availability per household, crops traditionally grown, access to inputs such as fertilisers,
  • Local environmental conditions: soil conditions, disease, pests, climatic conditions, occurrence of flooding/droughts and other natural disasters.
  • How climate change has impacted or will impact the farming system and how crop variety selection can be a climate- smart practice.
  • Local access to seeds – is seed collected at the householder level, do neighbours exchange seeds, do farmers have access to commercially produced seeds?  Are the costs for accessing commercial, improved seeds manageable or prohibitive? The CBA should weigh the benefits of a new seed against perceived actual or transactional costs for selecting a new seed.
• Step 2: Obtain information and guidance from local experts, lead farmers, and government regarding best varieties to grow.
• Step 3: Evaluate results of the CBA and select appropriate seeds that match the farm system/requirements, and available financial resources/access to credit.
• Step 4: Plant test plots of selected seeds to understand if benefits are realised and demonstrate outcomes with farmers, showing possible alternatives and discuss implementation.
• Step 5: Following full demonstration and discussion with farmers, implement at farm level – planting the first crop in accordance with guidance provided by seed provider, or traditional knowledge.

Consider in-country seed sources to access different varieties through local extension or research services. When buying seeds ensure that the seeds are adequately dry and look for seed that is certified by a national seed laboratory to ensure that the variety is the highest quality possible. Seeds should be properly stored to avoid high temperatures and humid air to reduce chances of early germination.

While agroforestry practices are deemed highly beneficial and climate smart, it is important to ensure that proposed practices are appropriate for the specific context – the benefits of the agroforestry practice match the needs of the farmer - and are fit for purpose. Obtain advice from an agroforestry expert before embarking on secondary crop/hedge species selection.

To effectively implement alley-cropping the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Clearly understand the objectives of the intervention and identify an appropriate species for intercropping. For maize and sorghum in a smaller subsistence farm setting, selection and growth of hedge rows of a legumes such as cowpea or Gliricidia can provide sustainable benefits in terms of soil quality and secondary fodder/food products. In larger fields, timber trees can be planted every five to ten crop rows, depending on the height of the mature tree, and the shade-tolerance of the crop.
• Step 2: Identify and understand key conditions, such as prevailing wind direction, and sunlight to ensure that the field is planted in an appropriate configuration, with primary crop and secondary (hedge/shrub/tree) crops planted in such a way as to benefit the primary crop and not compete with it. East to west row orientation should maxmise sunlight, topography permitting.
• Step 3: For beneficial hedgerow growth with legume species such as Leucaena, cliricidia, and Sesbania sesban, the trees should be planted in rows between two and four metres apart, with individual trees planted as close as possible - between 10 to 15 cm apart. If planted closely, the trees will favour leaves over step growth, creating more mulch to prune for cover. Note that if rows are planted too closely, the secondary crop can dominate the available crop land reducing productivity. Furthermore, the closer the hedges, the more shade will present, which can depress crop growth, and also start to compete for soil water and nutrients, which is not beneficial.
• Step 4: Once reaching sufficient maturity, after approximately six months (one-metre tall for legumes)– hedges should be pruned to generate mulch for working into the soil. Then the primary crop (maize) can be planted. Pruning once per month thereafter provides cover and ensures that light penetration is maintained. Planting legumes approximately six months before planting the primary crop can ensure that sufficient pruned material is available to incorporate into the soil to enhance growth.
• Step 5: After harvesting the primary crop, hedgerows can be left to grow taller so that shade reduces weed grown, and to develop material to prune and incorporate into the soil again during the following crop cycle. However, hedges should not be allow to grow too high or dense as their roots will dominate the soil and out-compete primary crops for water and nutrients.

Before implementing any of these technologies, further research may be required beyond the guidance provided here. The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has many resources, toolkits and success stories that can support such research.

Without a topographic survey, this technology may require trial and error to begin with, to see how rainfall and run-off responds to the contouring. To effectively implement erosion control measures the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Perform a thorough local study of the landscape, soils, land use and erosive processes that most impact the area: steep slopes, flood plains, high winds etc.
• Step 2: Source a large number of stones, preferably five to ten centimetres square blocks (from a quarry) or five to ten-centimetre diameter cobbles (from a river-bed). You will need 30 to 50 tonnes of stone per hectare for contour bunds approximately 300 metres long.
• Step 3: Mark out contours, as discussed in Technical Brief 16 Contour Planting.
• Step 4: In larger fields with shallower slopes, place stones in rows of two along contour line, interlocking alternately, burying the lower half. The bunds can be between 25 and 40 metres apart. On steeper slopes, stack and bury stones against or in vertical/near vertical walls of contours much closer together (five to ten metres apart) to reinforce them.
• Step 5: Make sure that stone bunds follow the contours from one side of the field to the other, ensuring that no ‘pour’ points (larger gaps) exist along the way, lining the drainage channel or weir from one contour to the next with stones to avoid or reduce scouring in these locations.
• Step 6: Following, and if possible, during rainfall events, check the stability of the slope, adjusting stone bunds where necessary.
• Step 7: At the end of the rainy season and again following harvest, review the performance of the technology, and prepare for the next growing season.

Switching to no-till or reduced tillage should be planned at least a year in advance so preparations can be made necessary implements can be obtained. Implements should match farm labour availability. You will also need to decide if no till or reduced tillage methods are appropriate based on farm area and desired crops, and start with a small area to determine feasibility. Cereal and legume crops are suitable for no tillage while vegetables and other crops often require some tillage – i.e. reduced tillage.

There are two forms of no-tillage, conventional and organic. Conventional no-tillage includes the application of herbicides to manage weeds, prior to and after planting. Organic no-tillage does not incorporate the use of herbicides, but includes other methods for controlling weeds, including cover crops, crop rotation and free-range livestock. Organic no-tillage is more suitable as it assists mitigate any climate change impacts on the farm.

No till

• Step 1: Prepare fields using conventional (herbicide application) or organic processes include cover crop (Technical Brief 15) and crop rotation (Technical Brief 09).
• Step 2: Test soils – aiming to balance nutrient and pH levels. In the case of acidic soils, add small amounts of lime each year.
• Step 3: Avoid soils with bad drainage, as they become water-logged.
• Step 4: Level the soil surface, removing uneven areas to assist even seed planting.
• Step 5: Eliminate soil compaction.

Reduced Till

• Step 1: This approach is similar to regular tillage, but with significantly less disturbance of the soil. Tilling is only done where needed, and the rest of the soil is undisturbed.
• Step 2: Strip-tillage or zone-tillage involves tilling and seeding in 15 cm strips leaving areas in-between undisturbed.
• Step 3: Ridge-tillage involves preparing ridges post-harvest and letting them settle over time to be planted the next seeding period; with ridges not more than 60 cm apart.

More information of each of these specific practices should be sought prior to implementation.

Crop rotation is a complimentary farming method when practicing no-tillage, as it promotes maximum biomass levels for permanent mulch cover, while controlling weeds (with pre- and post-emergent herbicides), pests, and diseases, as well as improving soil nutrition and fertility.

In addition to agricultural inputs and the following technical implementation steps, ISFM requires the farmer to consider farm size (land area), and property rights (land tenure) to ensure that investments are efficient and sustainable.

To implement ISFM approaches, the following should be considered:

• Step 1: Prepare a needs assessment based on understanding of farm challenges – low or declining productivity, soil fertility, low organic content, etc
• Step 2: Measure fields that require attention to understand volumes of inputs required.
• Step 3: Develop (or update) an agricultural calendar to use as a platform for discussion between farmer(s) extension officer(s).
• Step 4: Develop plan and schedule/programme of locally appropriate ISFM interventions between farmer(s) and extension officer(s), obtaining guidance from agricultural suppliers where necessary (lime application, etc). As ISFM is a blended approach, the plan should consider short and medium to long term interventions and outcomes.
• Step 5: Examine cost implications of the plan, revising where necessary based upon available resources, and if necessary/available apply for credit to fund investments.
• Step 6: Assess labour requirements within the ISFM plan to ensure that they can be fulfilled, and considerations of gender and youth have been accommodated – women are not expected to do the majority of work, and children are not missing school.

Before applying lime to increase lower soil pH the following should be considered. Equipment required: soil pH testing kit, protective goggles and mask, agricultural lime, shovels/forks/hoes, and disk harrow, drag harrow or hoe if available.

• Step 1: Use a pH testing strip to determine soil pH levels, making sure to test surface and sub-surface acidity.
• Step 2: Measure area of land to be treated in order to determine amount of lime for purchase. Application should be calculated as metric tonne per hectare, depending on soil pH and crop. Lime requirements will differ depending on soil type and level of acidity in the soil. Application volumes can be guided by suppliers.
• Step 3: Purchase lime according to requirements from agricultural supplier. Savings could be realised if purchasing as a group of farmers.
• Step 4: Apply lime to the soils at least two months prior to planting directly after harvesting to allow the lime to react with the soil, and positively impact the pH.
• Step 5: Mix lime and soil well in order to reduce soil acidity. This is normally achieved through disk tilling but can be done manually using a drag harrow or hoe. However, this can be an intensive process.
• Step 6: Test pH prior to planting to ensure amendments have improved soil pH.
• Step 7: Plant crops. Monitor crop performance, and harvest results with a view to understanding impact of lime treatment.
• Step 8: Following harvest, test soil pH again.

Application of lime can be part of an Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) practices.

While a practical solution, this soil amendment should be informed by research and discussion with extension officers and lime suppliers. On-farm storage and management of lime should be included in this dialogue.

Organic fertilisers can be produced at the household level or purchased. On-farm production includes stock-piling animal manure, crop residues, and other organic waste, following appropriate guidance for processing and usage.

To apply organic fertilisers the following should be considered:

• Step 1: Assess field area where fertiliser is to be applied, and fertiliser needs – poor crop performance, low organic matter content, etc.
• Step 2: Ensure that fertiliser is available in sufficient quantities for application in all target or priority fields.
• Step 3: Ensure organic fertiliser – especially green manure/crop residues – are broken-down/chopped to aid breakdown/integration with soil.
• Step 4: Monitor soil nutrient levels and crop performance (in the light of prevailing climatic conditions) to determine success of organic fertilisers.