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Zai pits are based on a traditional technology approach originating from West Africa that assists farmers working on marginal and degraded land. This approach involves the concentration and conservation of nutrients and water at the crop root systems through the digging of small pits (Zai pits) and filling them with compost, with the aim of increasing soil fertility and water infiltration. Zai pits are dug between planting season and filled with organic fertilisers/composts, which attract worms, termites and other insects, creating mix of material that can be used to fertilise crops. Farmers plant crops directly in these pits, prior to rains and water will infiltrate the pits more easily than the surrounding soil. Applying this technology is laborious to implement, but it  has been found to assist farmers in times of drought or in arid conditions to produce successful crops by maximising the resources available. Zai pits allow for mitigation of desertification in degraded land and an economic use of resources in conditions of scarcity, especially in resource constrained environments

The process of saving one’s own seed involves the collection of seeds from the best performing (most yield, largest size, early maturing or other desired traits, etc.) plants from one season to plant them in the next cropping season. The aim of this practice is to select seed from parent plants in the hope that desired characteristics are replicated in the next generation of plants. Seeds that have been selected will likely be adapted to local farming conditions including soil types and rainfall amounts. The seed most likely to carry intergenerational traits (size, colour, water use efficiency, and other biophysical traits) are open-pollinated (those plants pollinated by birds, insects, wind, etc.) seed varieties as they are cross-pollinated by the same type of crop. Different crops have different reproduction cycles with some species flowering or producing seeds annually, biennially or on a perennial basis. Thus, understanding seeding time is important for farmers aiming to save their own seeds. Almost as important as selecting the correct seeds is seed storage, which must be done correctly to avoid spoiling and losses. Seed saving is a cost-effective measure for farmers to employ and helps them avoid having to buy seeds at market on an annual basis. Seed trading or community seed banks provide a climate resilience strategy as they secure farmers access and availability of diverse, locally adapted crops and varieties while enhancing indigenous knowledge. Often crops from hybrid seeds or improved varieties do not generate viable seeds ensuring that seeds cannot be saved and must be purchased on an annual basis.

Weeds are any unwanted plant species that compete with crops for sunlight, water, nutrients, air and space, hindering crop growth and in some cases are even toxic to crop plants. Weed control measures can be applied in an integrated manner to help prevent the growth and spread of weeds in agricultural systems. An integrated weed management approach aims to restrict weed growth until a crop is well established and can outcompete weeds. This integrated approach includes biological, chemical, cultural and/or physical tactics to combat weed spread and growth and these practices can be more cost effective than herbicide applications. Integrated weed management is climate smart as it combines multiple climate smart practices that increase farmers resilience, limits GHG releases and increases productivity. Options for weed control include crop rotation, intercropping, cover crops (which can be used as green manure or mulch), mulching, seed-bed preparation, livestock grazing, seed/variety selection, mowing, and hand-weeding.

The application of integrated weed control is climate smart as it reduces herbicide application and reduction in machinery usage (i.e. through no-tillage practices).

Trash lines are the incorporation of lines of organic materials spread across contours of hilly agricultural fields - strips of heaped straw or weed materials that have been collected during primary cultivation of the land. Trash lines have been found to direct runoff in field and act as an erosion control method. Through decomposition, the trash line material acts as a type of compost adding nutrients to the soil, adding more organic material year on year, should the farmer continue to build this line. This is a climate smart approach as it contributes to soil health, capturing more nutrients and carbon in the soil, and in turn promoting sustainable agricultural productivity. In changing climates, implementation of this practice can contribute to adaptation strategies.

Mulching is the process of introducing vegetative material to the surface of soil in fields to provide soil cover, reduce evaporation, maintaining an even soil temperature and ultimately improve organic content in soil. These materials can include grasses, crop residues, tree bark and other plant materials, even including seaweed if it is available. These materials should be well decomposed, and mixed well into the top soil when the growing season is over. Mulching improves soil fertility by creating a positive soil environment favouring microbial activity and other promoting beneficial organisms such as earthworms, increases moisture retention, stabilises soil temperatures (protecting soils from both heat and cold), reduces soil erosion and restricts weeds. The temperature control keeps roots and plant bulbs cool in the summer and warm in the winter. It can be utilised on all scales of farm, depending upon the availability of input mulch materials. It is considered a climate smart approach as it sequesters carbon in the soil and promotes soil health which in turn maintains agricultural productivity and the ability of a farmer to adapt to climate changes. In some cases, shredded plastic is sometimes used as a synthetic soil cover, but this is not considered climate smart, as it does not integrate organic matter to the soil, instead introducing plastics.

Many farmers grow one crop repeatedly on the same field over-and-over again. Crop diversification is the cultivation of several crops of a different species or variety (of one crop) in one plot at any given point in time. The main advantage of implementing crop diversification is that it enhances household climate resilience through reducing risk of monocrop failure due to pests, disease, low rainfall and other climate risks.

Employing crop diversification may also provide opportunity of more diversified income sources and dietary diversity. Farmers can simultaneously grow both food crops, fodder and cash crops in an attempt to increase household food security and improve household incomes. There are also indications that crop diversification can increase crop productivity, which for poorer households can have significant positive impacts. For better capitalised farms, return on specialisation may be higher, and will likely not realise the desired returns.

Monocropping in one field for many subsequent years will cause nutrient depletion in that field and lead to less productive returns. Crop Rotation is the process of planning the planting and harvesting of different crops planted on the same field over subsequent growing seasons, allowing less nutrient depletion and if applied effectively, increasing soil nutrients through nitrogen fixing etc. This farming practice also assists with weed control, prevents soil erosion, and is the most efficient and economical way to break the biological cycles of plant pests and diseases, mitigating the effects of pests/disease as they become more prevalent due to climate change and helping farmer diversify crop production.  Research has shown that rotation between nitrogen consuming crops such as maize and nitrogen depositing plants such as soybeans can provide a healthy balance of nutrients. This farming practice is advantageous for smallholder farmers who are less able to leave fields fallow for extended periods of time, as well as for commercial farmers wanting to reduce pesticide use. It is seen as climate smart as it breaks pest and disease cycles, returning nutrients to the soil, thereby supporting more predictable yields in times of climate pressure, and locking more carbon in the soil.

Biochar refers to a fine-grained charcoal, rich in organic carbon compounds, used to improve soil quality through enhanced nutrient and water holding capacity of soil, reducing total fertiliser needs. Biochar is a stable solid produced from the controlled burning of plant and waste feedstock, including wood chips and pellets, tree bark, crop residues (straw, maize stovers, nut shells and rice hulls), grain, sugarcane bagasse, chicken litter, diary manure, sewage and paper sludge. Biochar is used as a soil conditioner as part of soil amendment strategies, improving the workability of soil, particularly those with heavy clay components.. The application of biochar to soil is a strategy to minimise the climate and environmental impact of cropland systems, such as the application of synthetic fertilisers, and improve soil quality through enhancing its physical-chemical characteristics. This agricultural practice improves soil structure, nutrient cycling and water retention, and the high stability of biochar carbon compounds contributes to the reduction of green-house gas emissions by increasing carbon sequestering in soils. Biochar is shown to be effective in improving soil conditions in acidic, sandy and clay-rich soils, improving the physical characteristics, and is classified by the FAO classifies as an adaptation strategy and contributes to mitigation of climate change as the processes captures and stores carbon in soils create other secondary socio-economic benefits, through additional fuel sources, and economic opportunities for production. Biochar can either be purchased or produced on-farm on a small or large scale. Collective action may benefit communities, so discussion with neighbours and community leadership may be necessary, especially if a biochar.

Green manure (otherwise known as cover crops), is a climate smart fertiliser process that involves growing plants (mainly legumes) and distributing uprooted or sown crop-parts to wither and cover soil. It provides soil coverage to enhance biological, physical and chemical properties of soil while mitigating soil erosion, supressing weed growth, adding biomass to soils, improving soil structures, promoting biological soil preparation, and reducing pests, diseases and weed growth. These functions can increase economic return, reduce the need for herbicides and pesticides, while increasing productivity and potentially the quality of crops. It can also increase soil nitrogen, improve soil fertility, conserve soil humidity and reduce fertiliser costs. Green manure also has low management costs, presents good conservation characteristics, and improves biodiversity. Green manure is a feasible and sustainable option for farmers to improve soil quality and productivity, depending on local context and availability of different leguminous plants that best fit for farmers’ cropping systems. Examples of leguminous plants that can be used in southern Africa include: Mucuna (Mucuna pruriens); Sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea), Lab-lab (Lablab purpureus); Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan); Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and Butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea). Green manure has climate smart benefits as contributes to sustainable maintenance of agricultural production without the use of chemical fertilisers and depending upon the cover crop can contribute to adaptation of agricultural practices to climate change. Furthermore, coverage of soil with additional plant material can assist with carbon sequestration in soil. Not only does growing a secondary green manure crop provide a soil amendment benefit, but the crop can also be used as fodder for livestock. As the most common green manure plants are legumes, the pods and seeds can be fed to livestock while leaving the crop residue to perform the cover crop function in in the fields.

Compost is a biological process where micro-organisms recycle decaying or decomposing organic matter to produce a soil conditioner that can be applied as an additive to improve soil conditions. Composting takes place in the presence of oxygen (aerobic conditions), and with adequate temperature and moisture, transforming organic matter into plant-available nutrients. Compost can comprise organic plant and/or animal matter, and/or residues including leaves, dead roots, manure, urine, bones, and nematodes, amongst other organic materials. As it is generally rich in nutrients, the application of compost can naturally fortify soils, acting as a fertiliser, with soil humus or natural pesticide increasing the resistance of plants to diseases, foreign species and insects. The amount of organic matter in different soils depends on the soil type, vegetation species, and other environmental conditions, such as moisture and temperature. Thus, the application of compost may add important nutrients to soils that can benefit vegetation growth. Rainfall, temperature changes and other biophysical factors may result in a diminishing return of compost benefits to soil health. Therefore, the application of compost to soils should be a continuous practice, in order to increase physical, chemical and biological benefits. There are two main composting systems: Open Systems (compost piles or pits) or Contained Composting – see technical application below. This is a climate smart approach as it recycles readily available organic materials from a farm for use within the farming system, plus it avoids the use of chemical fertilisers. Composting is a climate smart approach as it reduces the need for chemical fertilisers, contributes to soil amendments that support adaptation to climate change, and helps retain soil fertility, which in turn aids agricultural productivity.