Mechanised

To effectively undertake leverage traditional seed characteristics, or improved crop varieties  the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Prior to selecting seed varieties, perform a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) to identify how crops will perform and their benefits compared to the costs of the seed, considering the following:
  • Local  farming system(s): land availability per household, crops traditionally grown, access to inputs such as fertilisers,
  • Local environmental conditions: soil conditions, disease, pests, climatic conditions, occurrence of flooding/droughts and other natural disasters.
  • How climate change has impacted or will impact the farming system and how crop variety selection can be a climate- smart practice.
  • Local access to seeds – is seed collected at the householder level, do neighbours exchange seeds, do farmers have access to commercially produced seeds?  Are the costs for accessing commercial, improved seeds manageable or prohibitive? The CBA should weigh the benefits of a new seed against perceived actual or transactional costs for selecting a new seed.
• Step 2: Obtain information and guidance from local experts, lead farmers, and government regarding best varieties to grow.
• Step 3: Evaluate results of the CBA and select appropriate seeds that match the farm system/requirements, and available financial resources/access to credit.
• Step 4: Plant test plots of selected seeds to understand if benefits are realised and demonstrate outcomes with farmers, showing possible alternatives and discuss implementation.
• Step 5: Following full demonstration and discussion with farmers, implement at farm level – planting the first crop in accordance with guidance provided by seed provider, or traditional knowledge.

Consider in-country seed sources to access different varieties through local extension or research services. When buying seeds ensure that the seeds are adequately dry and look for seed that is certified by a national seed laboratory to ensure that the variety is the highest quality possible. Seeds should be properly stored to avoid high temperatures and humid air to reduce chances of early germination.

While agroforestry practices are deemed highly beneficial and climate smart, it is important to ensure that proposed practices are appropriate for the specific context – the benefits of the agroforestry practice match the needs of the farmer - and are fit for purpose. Obtain advice from an agroforestry expert before embarking on secondary crop/hedge species selection.

To effectively implement alley-cropping the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Clearly understand the objectives of the intervention and identify an appropriate species for intercropping. For maize and sorghum in a smaller subsistence farm setting, selection and growth of hedge rows of a legumes such as cowpea or Gliricidia can provide sustainable benefits in terms of soil quality and secondary fodder/food products. In larger fields, timber trees can be planted every five to ten crop rows, depending on the height of the mature tree, and the shade-tolerance of the crop.
• Step 2: Identify and understand key conditions, such as prevailing wind direction, and sunlight to ensure that the field is planted in an appropriate configuration, with primary crop and secondary (hedge/shrub/tree) crops planted in such a way as to benefit the primary crop and not compete with it. East to west row orientation should maxmise sunlight, topography permitting.
• Step 3: For beneficial hedgerow growth with legume species such as Leucaena, cliricidia, and Sesbania sesban, the trees should be planted in rows between two and four metres apart, with individual trees planted as close as possible - between 10 to 15 cm apart. If planted closely, the trees will favour leaves over step growth, creating more mulch to prune for cover. Note that if rows are planted too closely, the secondary crop can dominate the available crop land reducing productivity. Furthermore, the closer the hedges, the more shade will present, which can depress crop growth, and also start to compete for soil water and nutrients, which is not beneficial.
• Step 4: Once reaching sufficient maturity, after approximately six months (one-metre tall for legumes)– hedges should be pruned to generate mulch for working into the soil. Then the primary crop (maize) can be planted. Pruning once per month thereafter provides cover and ensures that light penetration is maintained. Planting legumes approximately six months before planting the primary crop can ensure that sufficient pruned material is available to incorporate into the soil to enhance growth.
• Step 5: After harvesting the primary crop, hedgerows can be left to grow taller so that shade reduces weed grown, and to develop material to prune and incorporate into the soil again during the following crop cycle. However, hedges should not be allow to grow too high or dense as their roots will dominate the soil and out-compete primary crops for water and nutrients.

Before implementing any of these technologies, further research may be required beyond the guidance provided here. The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has many resources, toolkits and success stories that can support such research.

To effectively undertake contour planting:

• Step 1: Construct an A-frame that has a plumb-line with a rock hanging down the centre. The base of the A-frame should be 90 cm.
• Step 2: Calibrate the A-frame on flat ground. Ensure that both legs are on the ground. Mark where the plumb line meets the cross bar.
• Step 3: On a slope, working perpendicular to the slope, plant one leg of the A-frame and swing the other leg around until the plumb line meets the mark on the cross bar. Drive a stake into the ground where the first ‘planted’ leg is and continue the process across the slope.
• Step 4: Once the extent of the contour has been staked, tie a string from post-to-post across the slope; this identifies the contour to be planted.
• Step 5: Plant selected crops, develop contour ridges or plant contour strips along the contour line.
• Step 6: Subsequent contours should be spaced 3-5 m up or downhill of the preceding contour line. To determine the length between contour lines, measure off the top of each stake to a stake up or downhill with a tape measure or accurately measured third stick.
• Step 7: Contour ridges can be implemented like Water Spreading Bunds (Technical Brief 28) to form ridges of soil that are formed by tilling or ploughing and can be left after land preparation to further prevent erosive forces. Crops can be planted between these ridges.
• Step 8: The planting of contour strips can be implemented by planting grasses or hedges 20 m (shallow slopes) to 10 m (steeper slopes) apart up or downhill, similar to Trash Lines (Technical Brief 14). This intercropping allows for erosion control and can be used as fodder for livestock.

To effectively implement cover crops:

• Step 1:  Research whether locally available crops (especially legumes) provide potential options for cover crops.
• Step 2: Establish a demonstration plot could provide farmers with an example of how cover crops function.
• Step 3: Plant cover crops between primary crop growing systems to improve soil fertility, quality and nutrients.
• Step 4: Monitor soil structure, nutrient levels, and field integrity to ensure efficacy.
• Step 5: Incorporate cover crops with other climate smart practices enhance soil, including: Intercropping (Technical Brief 07), Crop Rotations (Technical Brief 09) Reduced/No-tillage Options (Technical Brief 12) etc

To effectively undertake mulching the following should be carried out. Tools required: shovel, scissors or shears.

• Step 1: Gather organic materials from the farm and other external sources if possible. grasses, crop residues, wood chips, tree backs and other plant materials.
• Step 2: Prepare a location to stock-pile mulch material. A large farm will need a substantial area or pit to achieve this. For smaller operations, mulch can be stored in open-topped barrels and bags punctured for air holes. Storage must allow moisture to contribute to the decomposition process, but no become waterlogged.
• Step 3: Chop/shred organic material and add to the stock-pile. With larger amounts of material, a motorised, or pedal driven chopper/shredder is useful.
• Step 4: Allow materials to decompose, but do not leave for extended periods as nutrients and minerals will be lost.
• Step 5: At the end of the growing season, remove any remaining weeds from the soil surface.
• Step 6: Spread mulch material over the surface approximately two centimetres deep.
• Step 7: In firmer or more compacted top soils, lightly work the mulch into the upper soil.
• Step 8: Lightly water area where mulch has been applied.

Mulch should be applied annually as mulching materials will decompose.

Without a topographic survey, this technology may require trial and error to begin with, to see how rainfall and run-off responds to the contouring. To effectively implement erosion control measures the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Perform a thorough local study of the landscape, soils, land use and erosive processes that most impact the area: steep slopes, flood plains, high winds etc.
• Step 2: Source a large number of stones, preferably five to ten centimetres square blocks (from a quarry) or five to ten-centimetre diameter cobbles (from a river-bed). You will need 30 to 50 tonnes of stone per hectare for contour bunds approximately 300 metres long.
• Step 3: Mark out contours, as discussed in Technical Brief 16 Contour Planting.
• Step 4: In larger fields with shallower slopes, place stones in rows of two along contour line, interlocking alternately, burying the lower half. The bunds can be between 25 and 40 metres apart. On steeper slopes, stack and bury stones against or in vertical/near vertical walls of contours much closer together (five to ten metres apart) to reinforce them.
• Step 5: Make sure that stone bunds follow the contours from one side of the field to the other, ensuring that no ‘pour’ points (larger gaps) exist along the way, lining the drainage channel or weir from one contour to the next with stones to avoid or reduce scouring in these locations.
• Step 6: Following, and if possible, during rainfall events, check the stability of the slope, adjusting stone bunds where necessary.
• Step 7: At the end of the rainy season and again following harvest, review the performance of the technology, and prepare for the next growing season.

Switching to no-till or reduced tillage should be planned at least a year in advance so preparations can be made necessary implements can be obtained. Implements should match farm labour availability. You will also need to decide if no till or reduced tillage methods are appropriate based on farm area and desired crops, and start with a small area to determine feasibility. Cereal and legume crops are suitable for no tillage while vegetables and other crops often require some tillage – i.e. reduced tillage.

There are two forms of no-tillage, conventional and organic. Conventional no-tillage includes the application of herbicides to manage weeds, prior to and after planting. Organic no-tillage does not incorporate the use of herbicides, but includes other methods for controlling weeds, including cover crops, crop rotation and free-range livestock. Organic no-tillage is more suitable as it assists mitigate any climate change impacts on the farm.

No till

• Step 1: Prepare fields using conventional (herbicide application) or organic processes include cover crop (Technical Brief 15) and crop rotation (Technical Brief 09).
• Step 2: Test soils – aiming to balance nutrient and pH levels. In the case of acidic soils, add small amounts of lime each year.
• Step 3: Avoid soils with bad drainage, as they become water-logged.
• Step 4: Level the soil surface, removing uneven areas to assist even seed planting.
• Step 5: Eliminate soil compaction.

Reduced Till

• Step 1: This approach is similar to regular tillage, but with significantly less disturbance of the soil. Tilling is only done where needed, and the rest of the soil is undisturbed.
• Step 2: Strip-tillage or zone-tillage involves tilling and seeding in 15 cm strips leaving areas in-between undisturbed.
• Step 3: Ridge-tillage involves preparing ridges post-harvest and letting them settle over time to be planted the next seeding period; with ridges not more than 60 cm apart.

More information of each of these specific practices should be sought prior to implementation.

Crop rotation is a complimentary farming method when practicing no-tillage, as it promotes maximum biomass levels for permanent mulch cover, while controlling weeds (with pre- and post-emergent herbicides), pests, and diseases, as well as improving soil nutrition and fertility.

An example of crop rotation is maize, followed by a legume. Grain SA has reported a 12 % increase in maize production following rotation with legumes such as cowpea. Furthermore, the legume yields often increase following rotation with the grain crop, and sometimes responding differently to the crop type. For example, soybean yield has been measured at 20 % higher following sorghum than maize. To effectively undertake crop rotation:

• Step 1: Determine which cereal crops and legumes are available in the area of interest.
• Step 2: Prepare land through clearing, weeding. No-tillage approaches are preferable (Technical Brief 12).
• Step 3: Plant a leafy cereal crop (maize or sorghum) and let the crop mature and harvest once ready. Once harvested, bend stalks over to increase biomass.
• Step 4: If possible, allow field to fallow for a short period. If this is not possible, practice cover cropping (Technical Brief 15).
• Step 5: Prepare land again, and sow second crop, usually a legume to improve soil structure and fertility. Harvest crop once ready.
• Step 6: Repeat process. It is possible to include more than two crops into crop rotation if desired.

It is advisable to carefully monitor yield for demonstration purposes, run test plots if necessary.

Before applying lime to increase lower soil pH the following should be considered. Equipment required: soil pH testing kit, protective goggles and mask, agricultural lime, shovels/forks/hoes, and disk harrow, drag harrow or hoe if available.

• Step 1: Use a pH testing strip to determine soil pH levels, making sure to test surface and sub-surface acidity.
• Step 2: Measure area of land to be treated in order to determine amount of lime for purchase. Application should be calculated as metric tonne per hectare, depending on soil pH and crop. Lime requirements will differ depending on soil type and level of acidity in the soil. Application volumes can be guided by suppliers.
• Step 3: Purchase lime according to requirements from agricultural supplier. Savings could be realised if purchasing as a group of farmers.
• Step 4: Apply lime to the soils at least two months prior to planting directly after harvesting to allow the lime to react with the soil, and positively impact the pH.
• Step 5: Mix lime and soil well in order to reduce soil acidity. This is normally achieved through disk tilling but can be done manually using a drag harrow or hoe. However, this can be an intensive process.
• Step 6: Test pH prior to planting to ensure amendments have improved soil pH.
• Step 7: Plant crops. Monitor crop performance, and harvest results with a view to understanding impact of lime treatment.
• Step 8: Following harvest, test soil pH again.

Application of lime can be part of an Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) practices.

While a practical solution, this soil amendment should be informed by research and discussion with extension officers and lime suppliers. On-farm storage and management of lime should be included in this dialogue.

Organic fertilisers can be produced at the household level or purchased. On-farm production includes stock-piling animal manure, crop residues, and other organic waste, following appropriate guidance for processing and usage.

To apply organic fertilisers the following should be considered:

• Step 1: Assess field area where fertiliser is to be applied, and fertiliser needs – poor crop performance, low organic matter content, etc.
• Step 2: Ensure that fertiliser is available in sufficient quantities for application in all target or priority fields.
• Step 3: Ensure organic fertiliser – especially green manure/crop residues – are broken-down/chopped to aid breakdown/integration with soil.
• Step 4: Monitor soil nutrient levels and crop performance (in the light of prevailing climatic conditions) to determine success of organic fertilisers.