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Traditional knowledge can also yield positive results in identifying sources of alternative dry season feeds, especially specific types of tree leaves and grasses. In mixed maize and livestock farming system, maize stovers can be utilised for more palatable feed supplements. To effectively improve palatability, the following steps should be carried out:

• Step 1: Where possible, mix grazing species to include browsers and grazers for uniform pasture use. Mixing livestock will reduce overgrazing on certain plants or plant types, distributing grazing pressure. This is a preventative measure. Over-seeding can be used  to fill in bare patches in fields, improve the density of pasture, establish improved grass varieties and enhance your grass vigour. It’s an easy way to improve an existing old or worn out, diseased or insect prone pasture by planting of grass seed directly into existing pasture, without tearing up the pasture, or the soil.
• Step 2: Speak to agricultural suppliers as palatability can be improved by enhancing the quality of the feed through addition of feed supplements.
• Step 3: If using silage from high moisture crops, it may be worth exploring feed flavourants as they mask the odours and flavours of alcohol formed as plant material ferments. Natural flavourants can include garlic, anise and black cumin, but artificial flavours are also available. Ratios for addition to fodder is very low - 0.5 to 1.5 %.
• Step 4: If using dry grass for feed, chopping and addition of molasses  and other concentrates can improve palatability of drier grasses; however, as it needs to be mixed with urea and water, guidance should be sought in terms of mix-ratios from a veterinarian to ensure that urea intake does not exceed recommended amounts.

To effectively carry out fodder tree-shrub production using a nursery environment – a covered or exposed separate planting area, often close to the farm so saplings can be tended easily - consider the following steps:

• Step 1: Identify one or more suitable species for fodder production, looking at suitable climatic, soil requirements, nutritional value and palatability, also considering source-plant (for cuttings) or seed availability.
• Step 2: Take cuttings of up to *1 metre in length from mature trees, cutting at an angle. Cutting should be planted within three days, and if transported, cutting end should be covered in wax or petroleum jelly.
• Step 3: Cuttings should be planted in 10 to 15 cm of soil either directly where they will grow or shallower in polythene planting cups.
• Step 4: Fodder crops should be planted as the rainy starts, providing sufficient water and mobilising enough nutrients to assist rapid growth.
• Step 5: Harvesting is again species specific*, and it is important to determine if drying prior to feeding, affects palatability or nutritional value.
• Step 6: Harvesting frequency should also be determined independently*as plants mature to ensure sustainable production that does not stunt long-term growth and productivity.
• Step 7: The farmer should consider how much fodder needs to be consumed immediately, how much dried as hay, and how much chopped and compressed to make silage.

Length of cutting, period prior to transplantation, and harvest quantities vary from species to species. Seek guidance from an agroforestry specialist or farmers that have experience with the process when selecting species, and how specifically to plant, manage and harvest fodder crops. An important element to understand is the volume of tree or shrub-based fodder each animal will require.

To effectively implement Carrying capacity improvement:

• Step 1: There is no standard equation to determine the carrying capacity of an area, as many variables apply and factors relevant within each context including size of land unit, amount, frequency and timing of rainfall seasons, type of vegetation, species of animal, etc.
• Step 2: Extension officers should aim to support farmers to continuously monitor rangeland status and realise the impacts of over-grazing and the benefits of finding an equilibrium.
• Step 3: Constant monitoring of the pasture and animals must be carried out throughout the year to check if stocking rate aligns with the carrying capacity of the land unit. If land degradation is identified, adjustments to stocking rates should be considered, in the context of season and landscape regeneration.
  • For communal grazing land, it is ideal to use Animal Units (AU) to calculate the relative grazing impact of different kinds and classes of domestic livestock and/or even common grazing wildlife species for one month (AUM = Animal Unit Months). This information should support collective decision-making regarding rangeland resources.

        Using a conversion table of, the AUE (Animal Unit Equivalent) and the formula:

        1) multiply the number of animals to be grazed on the pasture by AUE to determine total AU, then

        2) multiply the total AU by the number of months planned to graze (see formula below or

        Worksheet A of the Range Calculator).

        Formula: _____________ x _____________ = _____________ x _____________ = _____________

                        # Animals         AUE(table)     Animal Units (AU)   Months (M)           AUM

• Step 4: One option for effectively responding to carrying capacity challenges is shift or changing grazing species if high consumption species are placing pressure on a particular unit of land.

To effectively implement Improved digestibility, Improved protein content:

• Step 1: Inform farmers of the possible benefits of increased dietary protein in their livestock in order to implement dietary supplements.
• Step 2: Identify a supplement contain the key amino acids - Methionine, Lysine, Threonine, and Tryptophan, in consultation with suppliers and veterinarians.
• Step 3: Added supplements to green plant residue (silage) as guided on packaging or by supplier to increase the efficiency of protein in livestock. Ensure that supplement amounts are suitable for animals and the type of feed being supplemented.
• Step 4: Ensure that supplements sourced will be consistently available from suppliers in the region. These supplements can be purchased at most agricultural shops, including rural areas.
• Step 5: As a low-cost option, farmers can formulate rations specific to their livestock. These rations are only for domestic use and not commercial.

To effectively implement Improved digestibility, Improved protein content:

• Step 1: Inform farmers of the possible benefits of increased dietary protein in their livestock in order to implement dietary supplements.
• Step 2: Identify a supplement contain the key amino acids - Methionine, Lysine, Threonine, and Tryptophan, in consultation with suppliers and veterinarians.
• Step 3: Added supplements to green plant residue (silage) as guided on packaging or by supplier to increase the efficiency of protein in livestock. Ensure that supplement amounts are suitable for animals and the type of feed being supplemented.
• Step 4: Ensure that supplements sourced will be consistently available from suppliers in the region. These supplements can be purchased at most agricultural shops, including rural areas.
• Step 5: As a low-cost option, farmers can formulate rations specific to their livestock. These rations are only for domestic use and not commercial.

To effectively implement NCF practices:

• Step 1: Determine potential sources of NCFs in the local area and consider if the potential products are suitable (provide enough energy, are digestible, palatable to livestock animals, etc) and require additional investment to access or use.
• Step 2: Collect for free/negotiate lower rates with producers of agroecological industrial process biproducts or plant materials to gain access to their ‘waste’ materials.
• Step 3: Determine how sustainable and consistent the supply will be from the providers. If possible, identify a range of suppliers to mitigate potential losses of stockpiled NCFs.
• Step 4: Before being used as feed, NCF’s from agroecological processes must be appropriately processed - (grinding (8 mm) and pelleting) and mixed into a uniform blend. Hence, labour requirements may increase. This could be mechanised.
• Step 5: Livestock should be monitored when these feeds are introduced to ensure digestibility of the product for the animals.
• Step 6: Based on advice from the suppliers of agroecological industrial process biproducts, ensure appropriate storage of materials to avoid loss of nutrition, pests and waste.

To effectively implement Physical Storage Options:

• Step 1: When making a choice of which storage option to choose, farmers must consider the type of crop to be stored, storage requirements of the crop and the form in which the crop must be stored (for 0-6months/3-12months).
• Step 2: Grains must be stored in a dry place with a constant temperature.
• Step 3: Crops should be dried and have low moisture content prior to storage.
• Step 4: Airtight containers should be used to avoid insect infestation.
• Step 5: Based on farmer resources and time of storage, there are a number of containers that can be utilised to store harvested crops including metal silos, polythene sacks (that can be layered), mud silos, plastic bags.
• Step 6: As a last measure, insecticides in the form of a powder can be applied to harvested crops. The powder comes in pre-measured packets and are low dosage so generally safe to handle. Information is provided on each packet and should be read before integrating it into the crop. Grain needs to be cleaned before consumption.

To effectively implement Drying Technique practices:

• Step 1: Harvest crops.
• Step 2: Consider the number of different crops that need to be dried.
• Step 3: Dry the crops naturally using air temperature or direct sunlight or artificial drying through using fans or other mechanical means.
• Step 4: Never place crops directly on the soil but rather on a cement area, woven mats or a layer of sacks.
• Step 4: Livestock should be kept away from drying grains to prevent contamination and loss.
• Step 5: Farmers should consult storage life charts that will help determine dry crop characteristics and approximate times for drying.
• Step 6: Cover all drying grain at night to prevent loss or damage.
• Step 7: Sorghum should be left on the seed, maize should be de-husked and left on the cob, grain and pulses are normally left in their pods.
• Step 8: Monitor the stored grain by checking at least every two weeks.

To effectively implement Changing Harvest Time practices:

• Step 1: Consider researching recent rainfall records and consult national meteorological services to as accurately predict start of rainy season as possible.
• Step 2: Farmers should consult data provided by the African Post Harvest Loss Information System (APHLIS), which provides information on harvest loss and additional resources to consult.
• Step 3: Consult with national agricultural extension and research to determine growing periods of chosen crops. Request information about quicker or slower maturing seeds.
• Step 4: Plant crops at the right time so as to avoid harvesting during rainy season.
• Step 5: Harvest as soon as crops are physiologically mature.
• Step 6: Wait 24 hours after a rain period to harvest if rain is unavoidable. This may take several days, however, harvesting crops after one rain is better than leaving it for an entire rainy season.
• Step 7: Crops should be transported to the storage for immediate drying.

To effectively implement Best Practice Harvesting Techniques:

• Step 1: Obtain equipment and supplies needed for the harvest and post-harvest activities, e.g. clean sacks, drying mats, etc.
• Step 2: Allocate drying and threshing areas, ensuring the areas are swept, dry, and there is no/limited access for livestock or rodents. If in a dry climate or season, drying outside is optimal. If necessary, construct drying cribs elevated from the ground with rodent guards on legs can reduce access for rodents.
• Step 3: Allocate sufficient storage space for the harvested crop.
• Step 4: Clear weeds from the farm to prevent weed seeds from contaminating the harvest.
• Step 5: Place the harvested crop directly onto clean mats and bags to avoid contact with the soil, which may lead to moisture uptake and also prevent contamination with tiny Striga.