more than 2000m

To effectively implement Changing Harvest Time practices:

• Step 1: Consider researching recent rainfall records and consult national meteorological services to as accurately predict start of rainy season as possible.
• Step 2: Farmers should consult data provided by the African Post Harvest Loss Information System (APHLIS), which provides information on harvest loss and additional resources to consult.
• Step 3: Consult with national agricultural extension and research to determine growing periods of chosen crops. Request information about quicker or slower maturing seeds.
• Step 4: Plant crops at the right time so as to avoid harvesting during rainy season.
• Step 5: Harvest as soon as crops are physiologically mature.
• Step 6: Wait 24 hours after a rain period to harvest if rain is unavoidable. This may take several days, however, harvesting crops after one rain is better than leaving it for an entire rainy season.
• Step 7: Crops should be transported to the storage for immediate drying.

To effectively implement Best Practice Harvesting Techniques:

• Step 1: Obtain equipment and supplies needed for the harvest and post-harvest activities, e.g. clean sacks, drying mats, etc.
• Step 2: Allocate drying and threshing areas, ensuring the areas are swept, dry, and there is no/limited access for livestock or rodents. If in a dry climate or season, drying outside is optimal. If necessary, construct drying cribs elevated from the ground with rodent guards on legs can reduce access for rodents.
• Step 3: Allocate sufficient storage space for the harvested crop.
• Step 4: Clear weeds from the farm to prevent weed seeds from contaminating the harvest.
• Step 5: Place the harvested crop directly onto clean mats and bags to avoid contact with the soil, which may lead to moisture uptake and also prevent contamination with tiny Striga.

To effectively implement Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration:

• Step 1: Degraded land needs to be identified and living stumps, roots and seeds need to be encouraged to regrow. This may include periodic watering. Focus should be on indigenous species, and present tree species (existing stumps).
• Step 2: Consider leaving the field un-grazed to promote tree growth.
• Step 3: Select tree stumps and the tallest and straightest stems to grow into trees.
• Step 4: Prune and manage by removing stems and unwanted side branches.
• Step 5: Maintain the process by occasionally pruning side branches.
• Step 6: Manage the land consistently to avoid overgrazing, which can lead to further degradation.
• Step 7: Consider rotational grazing to allow seeds, stumps and underground shrubs to re-grow. This will reduce the cost of replanting. Shrubs and growing trees and saplings need to be protected before introducing livestock. Shrubs and growing trees and saplings need to be protected before introducing livestock.

To effectively implement hedge planting:

• Step 1: Purchase saplings of selected tree species from a local nursery or grow saplings in separate on-farm nursery. If growing on-farm, saplings should be held-up with an upright support bamboo/wooden pole. Ideally, the farmer should begin exploring silvopasture tree species beginning with indigenous trees, such as acacias, and other local trees. It is worth considering a mixture of species, as well as mixed shallower and deeper rooted trees.
• Step 2: Once at a meter or over in height, transplant to pastures, surrounding each individual sapling with a wire mesh cage-tube or insert into five-centimetre diameter PVC pipe to protect from browsers. Plant at least ten to twenty meters apart, in either a random or uniform pattern. This is a matter of preference.
• Step 3: Once saplings are planted, only allow grazing livestock (cows, sheep, ducks, geese, chickens) in the silvopasture, avoiding browsers (goats, etc), which will strip, damage or destroy the saplings.
• Step 4: Once mature and above browsing height, two plus meters, remove protective cage or pipe.
• Step 5: Depending on species, pruning, coppicing etc should be performed every two months to ensure that trees remain healthy and productive, while maximising outputs for in-field and cut and carry fodder.

To effectively implement Boundary Planting practices:

• Step 1: Plant long lines of two fast growing trees, Caesalpinia velutina trees, between a Bombacopsis quinate and a Swietenia humilis to be replaced over time.
• Step 2: Consider planting the boundary trees 1.5 metres apart along pre-existing fences.
• Step 3: Attach metal fencing to the trees to support the large trees without endangering their growth. Harvest fodder when the tree is overgrown.
• Step 4: Prune lower brunches to encourage upward growth of trees and reduce shed on the plants.

To effectively implement Rainwater Harvesting practices:

• Step 1: Create a water collection zone connected to a gutter system.
• Step 2: Install filters to the water collection zone.
• Step 3: Connect a hose pipe for easy distribution of irrigation water.
• Step 4: If a farmer intends to use water for human consumption other than flushing toilets, etc, water quality must be frequently tested using reliable and low-cost/low-tech solutions.
• Step 5: Use of filters can be considered to reduce particulate and other pollutants but should be thoroughly investigated – as a separate subject – by the extension officer and the farmer, otherwise it could lead to illness. It is recommended that farms utilise harvested rainwater for irrigation and other farming activities only.

To effectively implement Permeable Rock Dam practices, the following steps should be carried out:

• Step 1: Consider constructing a permeable rock dam across relatively wide and shallow valleys.
• Step 2: Permeable rock dams should consist of long, low rock walls with level crest along full length although farmers should consider central spillways where water course has cracks.
• Step 3: The dam should be between 50-300m in length and 1m in height within a gully.
• Step 4: Consider making the dam wall flatter on the downslope side than on the upslope side.
• Step 5: A foundation of small stones should be set in the trench.
• Step 6: An apron of large rocks is essential to split the erosive force of the overflow.
• Step 7: Downstream banks of the water stream should be shielded by stone pitching to prohibit the increase of the gully.

To effectively Water Spreading Bunds the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Farmers should consider making earth bunds by hand, animal ploughs or mechanised ploughs.
• Step 2: Contour bunds:
  • Contour lines must be plotted and marked prior to developing the bund.
  • A 40 cm deep infiltration pit is dug directly above where the bund will be plotted.
  • Bunds should be spread 5 m to 10 m apart.
  • Material from the infiltration pit will be piled and compacted to form a 25 cm to 30 cm in height with a base of 75 cm.
  • Soil is piled to form a ridge along the contour. The more significant the slope, the closer the bunds must be plotted.
• Step 3: Semi-circle bunds:
  • Contour lines must be plotted and marked prior to developing the bund.
  • A centre point is chosen as diameter for the bund is selected (this could be 3 m or 30 m depending on the available space). From the centre point a string is used to stake out an even semi-circle.
  • Excavate a small trench before the bund and pile the excavated material. Pile and compact a bund wall, wetting it often to form the wall.
• Step 4: Contour stone bunds:
  • Developed on less steep slopes.
  • Must have access to local stones.
  • Dig out a shallow ditch, 10 cm to 15 cm in depth.
  • Lay largest stones at the bottom of the ditch and pile smaller stone upward.
  • Step 5: Regular monitoring of bunds should take place, especially after rain events or after significant periods of time. Repairs should be done if any damage is found.

To effectively In Field Water Harvesting techniques, the following steps should be carried out:

• Step 1: Land is cleared, berms are developed, and crops are planted in order to direct water to the infiltration point.
• Step 2: The catchment areas should be sloped no more than 5 % and the area should be cleared to promote catchment as much as possible.
• Step 3: The infiltration pit (where water is stored) should be dug at the lowest point of the catchment areas and line infiltration pits with plastic or concrete roofing to limit water loss, and can be used as a source of irrigation for fruit trees and other high value crops.
• Step 4: Paths can be built of soil to guide water to the infiltration pit.
• Step 5: Alley cropping, or strop cropping can be used, with areas between trees and crops dug deeper like a trough to direct water to the infiltration pit.
• Step 6: To access water from infiltration pits, farmers can introduce a pumping system and water can be distributed around the farm as necessary

To effectively implement drip irrigation:

• Step 1: A reliable water source must be available - natural (natural or through rain-water harvesting).
• Step 2: Acquire a pump system (approximately $US 100) that maintains enough pressure to deliver water through the system or an elevated tank.
• Step 3: Connect lines or hoses and laterals that run from the pump system across the planted fields.
• Step 4: Run lines or hoses with emitters (drippers) or small punctures at the surface level along planted crops or just below the surface providing water to the roots system of the plants.
• Step 5: Once the system is operable, the pump can be turned on and water dispersed as required by the nature of the crop and can also be implemented with supplemental irrigation strategies (Technical Brief 23).
• Step 6: Monitor the irrigation system regularly to ensure there are no malfunctions and the system is maintained. Crops that receive regular water can develop shallow root systems and any prolonged disruptions in service could have   significant impacts.
• Step 7: If applying drip irrigation in sloped conditions, follow the contours of the slope as outlined in Technical Brief 16.

Once a drip irrigation system is up and running, farmers can explore fertigation, the addition of soluble fertilisers into the irrigation system water for distribution directly to plants.