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Improved protein content in animal feed can positively impact productivity, such as the quality and quantity of meat and milk.  With the increase in global demand for meat and dairy products, the increase of protein in livestock diets is extremely important. Key to the absorption of protein in livestock diets is the improved digestibility of protein. For protein to be utilised efficiently by livestock i.e. consumed and converted into body protein and resulting in bigger and better-quality meat, certain amino acids need to be present. Thus, to maximise protein deposition in livestock, the required amino acids must also be included in the feed. Amino acids have been added to livestock feed for over 40-years. The most common amino acids added to feeds are Methionine, Lysine, Threonine, and Tryptophan. With the expansion of inexpensive plant-based proteins (soybeans etc.) and increasing demands for meat, plant-based proteins offer an alternative or supplement to amino-acids, contributing to greater efficiency of conversion of proteins from feed to meat. Plant-based proteins also require less monitoring than synthetic additives, but amino acids are often needed to maintain digestibility. Improved livestock productivity and conversion is climate smart because there is more efficient conversion of food to weight gain and less livestock pressure on land, supporting a more efficient value chain.

Non-Conventional Feeds (NCF) are either traditional or commercial animal feed-types that are not traditionally utilised as animal feed. These feeds are generally in one of two categories: by-products of agroecological industrial processes, or plants/plant materials from other processes. Examples of industrial by-products include groundnut cake, molasses and cotton seed meal, which are outputs from other processes and are found in proximity of manufacturing points, but often have a short shelf-life. Plant materials can be vegetable peels or locally available crop residues such as maize stalks and other remaining parts of harvested plants not consumed by humans. NCF decrease the demand of land to grow fodder, act as an alternative source for animal feed, resulting in the decrease of food competition between animals and humans ensuring food security. Furthermore, the use of bi-products optimises the use of raw materials and can increase profitability for the producer and the farmer.

Grains are stored to reduce the opportunities for loss, damage or infestation by pests. On the farm grain storage can be short-term (>3 months) before it is moved to the supply chain, long term (3-12 months) while farmers store it for home consumption, to sell when prices are more favourable or for planting in the next season. During this phase of post-harvest processing, grains can be stored in bags, silos or other bulk storage containers. Bag storage utilises permeable sacks that will allow air movement in and out of the bag. Structures can be built to store grains and solid-wall bins or silos should be used in areas where grains can be dried properly. Other options include airtight underground pits, steel bins, while concrete silos and warehouses can also be used as storage options. While storing grains to ensure favourable storage, facilities should be kept clean, covered, and never exposed to the elements.  However, pest control measures need to be established, such as adhering to acceptable grain moisture content levels at storage to deter insect infestation, as pests (rodents, insects, etc.) can devastate grains in storage. Physical storage options are built to meet the demand and supply of grains season-to-season and to make seeds available for the next planting season.

Drying techniques are agricultural practices applied to assist with the balance of moisture in grains post-harvest, determined by a combination of ambient temperature and relative humidity. Spoiling due to insufficiently dried grain is one of the main causes of grain deterioration, loss in grain quality, and thus market value. Grains have the capability to absorb or evaporate moisture, and a balance of moisture content in the air and grains should be sought to achieve an Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). EMC prevents the formation of moulds that may affect the quality of grains, spread of pests and germination of grain seeds. After harvest, transportation and threshing, grain needs to be further dried to be preserved. Natural drying techniques are based on ambient air circulation to reduce the moisture content of the grain before storage. Artificial drying techniques apply fans and/or heating elements to move air and maintain constant temperatures .Natural drying (sun drying) is the preferred, commonly used agricultural technique in southern Africa and does not require use of machinery. Drying techniques preserve the contents of seeds thus assuring sustainable agricultural productivity and the practice as climate smart.

Changing harvest time refers to adjusting harvest time to focus on optimal moisture conditions, thereby avoiding losses from mould, decay and possible disease, while also considering optimal maturity of the crop. This approach encourages the reduction in potential losses of ripened grain and increases potential higher quality grain for consumption or market. Harvesting of crops when physiologically mature can minimise losses during transportation to the homestead. Physiological harvesting refers to the time when a grain (fruit, etc.) can be separated from its parent plant and continues to ripen over time. Farmers should consider planting earlier or later or consider planting faster or slower maturing varieties to avoid issues of post-harvest loss. This is a climate smart practice because it reduces potential losses of ripened grain, increase the quality of grain harvested, and is overall a more efficient use of resources, all while mitigating the spread of diseases and reducing GHG emissions.

Best Practice Harvesting Techniques are formalised harvesting practices intended to reduce breakage and bruising of crops during collection and storage. These techniques minimise harvest losses and maintain the quality of the produce. To maximise this approach, factors such as moisture content, cleanness of the grain, colour, odour and potential pest infestation need to be considered during harvest periods. Considering each of these factors will increase grain value as quality standards are directly related to grain price. Harvesting can be performed manually or mechanically, with obvious cost implication of employing the latter.

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is a technique of restoring degraded land and monitoring restoration of the land involving the systematic regeneration and management of trees and shrubs from tree stumps, roots and seed. Degraded arid land often features left over indigenous plants, which if maintained and promoted to grow can improve pasture and crop lands while simultaneously encouraging re-growth of seeds, roots and shrubs. Key to this practice is the existence of living stumps, tree roots and seed that, if encouraged, will regrow. The land is protected from being completely cleared or further grazed and this allows trees to grow without disturbance. Once the stumps and trees start to grow, pruning and trimming of trees is required to allow space between trees and promote healthy long tree trunks. Once the trees have matured, intercropping can take place or livestock can be re-introduced to graze.

While requiring some investment in terms of effort, FMNR has climate smart advantages such as controlling rainfall/irrigation run-off, supporting water quality improvements, providing sources of timber or fodder, supporting habitant regeneration for pollinator insect species, acting as sun shade, and reducing soil erosion.

Agroforestry is a land management practice that combines the planting and management of trees and shrubs with crops and pasture, providing benefits of soil health, crop yields, resilience to climate change, biodiversity and economic opportunities. Agroforestry encompasses numerous practices, including silvo-pasture, agro-silvo cultural, and agro-silvo-pastural. One such successful agroforestry practice is silvo-pasture – the planting of trees and shrubs within livestock grazing pasture lands. Not to be confused with agrosilvopasture (combination of crops, shrubs/trees and livestock, silvopasture is the combination of trees and shrubs with pastural grazing land. The trees can be regularly or irregularly placed, and in addition to improving soil conditions in pasture lands, also provide production of protein-rich tree fodder for on farm feeding and for cut-and-carry fodder production. If growing larger species of tree, coppicing can also produce timber for building materials and firewood.

Boundary planting, also known as live fence planting, is a technique used to protect crops from the interference of people and animals that can disturb plant growth. Trees/shrubs are a good example of this approach as they can form a shield when planted along the boundaries of the garden or surrounding a planted field. The trees/shrubs act as wind break to shield plants against strong winds causing physical damage to plants themselves, or the removal of soil (erosion). Additional benefits include the use of branches for firewood or building materials, and the other parts of trees can be used as fodder, fruit or leave harvested for consumption, or for medicinal use. Tree/shrub spacing is critical, as trees that have dense canopies can conversely cause destructive down-drafts, negating the intended benefits. Boundary planting helps limit global warming by mitigating GHG emissions through reducing harmful gases such as, carbon dioxide, from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen.

Alternate wetting and drying also called intermittent flooding is a technique developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) to control water consumption in rice fields (CGIAR 2014). This technology saves water throughout the year in areas of variable rainfall. It is designed as a pick-up water system in cases when water consumption is cut. Water levels are monitored and controlled by the removal of excess water, leaving enough water to sustain crops. Alternate wetting and drying reduces greenhouse gas emissions especially methane, which is emitted from flooded rice fields (FAO 2016). The drying phase helps to sustain and develop plant roots. Moreover, costs on fuel used for irrigation are reduced.