Neutral

Improved protein content in animal feed can positively impact productivity, such as the quality and quantity of meat and milk.  With the increase in global demand for meat and dairy products, the increase of protein in livestock diets is extremely important. Key to the absorption of protein in livestock diets is the improved digestibility of protein. For protein to be utilised efficiently by livestock i.e. consumed and converted into body protein and resulting in bigger and better-quality meat, certain amino acids need to be present. Thus, to maximise protein deposition in livestock, the required amino acids must also be included in the feed. Amino acids have been added to livestock feed for over 40-years. The most common amino acids added to feeds are Methionine, Lysine, Threonine, and Tryptophan. With the expansion of inexpensive plant-based proteins (soybeans etc.) and increasing demands for meat, plant-based proteins offer an alternative or supplement to amino-acids, contributing to greater efficiency of conversion of proteins from feed to meat. Plant-based proteins also require less monitoring than synthetic additives, but amino acids are often needed to maintain digestibility. Improved livestock productivity and conversion is climate smart because there is more efficient conversion of food to weight gain and less livestock pressure on land, supporting a more efficient value chain.

Non-Conventional Feeds (NCF) are either traditional or commercial animal feed-types that are not traditionally utilised as animal feed. These feeds are generally in one of two categories: by-products of agroecological industrial processes, or plants/plant materials from other processes. Examples of industrial by-products include groundnut cake, molasses and cotton seed meal, which are outputs from other processes and are found in proximity of manufacturing points, but often have a short shelf-life. Plant materials can be vegetable peels or locally available crop residues such as maize stalks and other remaining parts of harvested plants not consumed by humans. NCF decrease the demand of land to grow fodder, act as an alternative source for animal feed, resulting in the decrease of food competition between animals and humans ensuring food security. Furthermore, the use of bi-products optimises the use of raw materials and can increase profitability for the producer and the farmer.

Grains are stored to reduce the opportunities for loss, damage or infestation by pests. On the farm grain storage can be short-term (>3 months) before it is moved to the supply chain, long term (3-12 months) while farmers store it for home consumption, to sell when prices are more favourable or for planting in the next season. During this phase of post-harvest processing, grains can be stored in bags, silos or other bulk storage containers. Bag storage utilises permeable sacks that will allow air movement in and out of the bag. Structures can be built to store grains and solid-wall bins or silos should be used in areas where grains can be dried properly. Other options include airtight underground pits, steel bins, while concrete silos and warehouses can also be used as storage options. While storing grains to ensure favourable storage, facilities should be kept clean, covered, and never exposed to the elements.  However, pest control measures need to be established, such as adhering to acceptable grain moisture content levels at storage to deter insect infestation, as pests (rodents, insects, etc.) can devastate grains in storage. Physical storage options are built to meet the demand and supply of grains season-to-season and to make seeds available for the next planting season.

Drying techniques are agricultural practices applied to assist with the balance of moisture in grains post-harvest, determined by a combination of ambient temperature and relative humidity. Spoiling due to insufficiently dried grain is one of the main causes of grain deterioration, loss in grain quality, and thus market value. Grains have the capability to absorb or evaporate moisture, and a balance of moisture content in the air and grains should be sought to achieve an Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). EMC prevents the formation of moulds that may affect the quality of grains, spread of pests and germination of grain seeds. After harvest, transportation and threshing, grain needs to be further dried to be preserved. Natural drying techniques are based on ambient air circulation to reduce the moisture content of the grain before storage. Artificial drying techniques apply fans and/or heating elements to move air and maintain constant temperatures .Natural drying (sun drying) is the preferred, commonly used agricultural technique in southern Africa and does not require use of machinery. Drying techniques preserve the contents of seeds thus assuring sustainable agricultural productivity and the practice as climate smart.

Changing harvest time refers to adjusting harvest time to focus on optimal moisture conditions, thereby avoiding losses from mould, decay and possible disease, while also considering optimal maturity of the crop. This approach encourages the reduction in potential losses of ripened grain and increases potential higher quality grain for consumption or market. Harvesting of crops when physiologically mature can minimise losses during transportation to the homestead. Physiological harvesting refers to the time when a grain (fruit, etc.) can be separated from its parent plant and continues to ripen over time. Farmers should consider planting earlier or later or consider planting faster or slower maturing varieties to avoid issues of post-harvest loss. This is a climate smart practice because it reduces potential losses of ripened grain, increase the quality of grain harvested, and is overall a more efficient use of resources, all while mitigating the spread of diseases and reducing GHG emissions.

Best Practice Harvesting Techniques are formalised harvesting practices intended to reduce breakage and bruising of crops during collection and storage. These techniques minimise harvest losses and maintain the quality of the produce. To maximise this approach, factors such as moisture content, cleanness of the grain, colour, odour and potential pest infestation need to be considered during harvest periods. Considering each of these factors will increase grain value as quality standards are directly related to grain price. Harvesting can be performed manually or mechanically, with obvious cost implication of employing the latter.

System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is an agro-ecological practice for increasing the productivity of irrigated rice cultivation by changing the management of water, plants, soil and nutrients. SRI promotes the growth of root systems, increases the abundance and diversity of soil organisms by keeping the soil moist but not flooded, and provides frequent aeration and conditioning of soil with organic matter. This agro-ecological practice stimulates plant growth by transplanting young seedlings, avoiding disturbance to roots and providing crops with wider spacing to encourage greater root and canopy growth. The agricultural methodology is based on well-founded agro-ecological principles which have been successfully adapted to upland rice and have shown increased productivity over current conventional planting practices.

Rainwater harvesting is an agricultural technique of collecting and storing rainwater or runoff in tanks or natural reservoirs. This practice is mostly practiced in arid or semi-arid areas with temporal and spatial variability of rainfall mostly lost as surface runoff or evaporation. Runoff is harvested and utilised as a preventative measure for soil erosion, as well as a water management strategy for irrigating crops and for livestock water. This technique enables farmers to capture and store rainwater during times of plenty for use during times of scarcity. Rainwater harvesting is a technology that maximises the use of existing freshwater resources and is a useful technology for water resource planners and managers in both governmental and non-governmental organisations, institutions and communities.

Water spreading bunds are barriers used on gradual slopes to slow down surface water and slow filter runoff, increasing the chance of infiltration, capturing runoff sediment, and decreasing soil erosion. Bunds can be built of different materials including packed earth or stones. Bunds can be spread across fields or used in micro-settings around individual trees or plants and should be applied in semi-arid or arid conditions. Bunds efficiently spread rainwater across the system and prevent streams from developing. Implementing bunds in areas with adequate rainfall or irrigation, may cause waterlogging and adversely affect crop growth.

Different types of bunds include:

• Contour bunds: ridges of soil that follow slope contours and can be implemented at a large scale. Crops are cultivated between bunds.
• Semi-circle bunds: ridges of varying size build in a half-moon or semi-circle. They are generally applied to rehabilitate rangelands and/or in the production of fodder.
• Contour stone bunds: lines of stones laid in a shallow dug out areas that slow down the flow of runoff

In-field water harvesting is the practice of increasing water infiltration and moisture retention in the soil. The agricultural technique involves the collection of rainwater runoff from fields that is collected and stored for future needs. This water can be stored in infiltration pits and later used to water the same crops, other crops through an irrigation system (usually high value crops, including fruit trees), or used for domestic purposes. Factors like soil, water, and plant type influence the effectiveness and productivity of rainwater harvesting. This type of water harvesting is generally implemented in areas of very low rain (semi-arid) conditions. In-field water harvesting entails establishing micro-catchments at the farm scale, where sloped areas have been cleared or cropped to direct rainwater to the water storage area (a pit that has been dug to store/hold water). Utilising strip cropping to growing crops while providing a method for directing rain is sometime practiced. The soil type has a limiting factor in collecting in-field water due the infiltration rates. In-field water harvesting saves rainfall water that can be used over a longer period than during and immediately after a rainfall event, reduces the risks of crop failure due to no or limited rainfall, and increases rain water productivity.