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To effectively implement cover crops:

• Step 1:  Research whether locally available crops (especially legumes) provide potential options for cover crops.
• Step 2: Establish a demonstration plot could provide farmers with an example of how cover crops function.
• Step 3: Plant cover crops between primary crop growing systems to improve soil fertility, quality and nutrients.
• Step 4: Monitor soil structure, nutrient levels, and field integrity to ensure efficacy.
• Step 5: Incorporate cover crops with other climate smart practices enhance soil, including: Intercropping (Technical Brief 07), Crop Rotations (Technical Brief 09) Reduced/No-tillage Options (Technical Brief 12) etc

To effectively undertake trash lines:

• Step 1: Collect straw, stalks, picked weed or other organic materials from field or surrounding area.
• Step 2: Establish contour lines using method identified in contour planting (Technical Brief 16).
• Step 3: Contour lines for trash lines should be spaced between 5 to 10 m apart.
• Step 4: Heap straw along contour lines on hilly or sloped fields to be approximately 0.5 m wide and up to 0.3 m in height.
• Step 5: Trash should be piled on annually or as the field is prepared. Lines can be maintained for a few years and then decomposed materials can be mixed into the soil.

To effectively undertake mulching the following should be carried out. Tools required: shovel, scissors or shears.

• Step 1: Gather organic materials from the farm and other external sources if possible. grasses, crop residues, wood chips, tree backs and other plant materials.
• Step 2: Prepare a location to stock-pile mulch material. A large farm will need a substantial area or pit to achieve this. For smaller operations, mulch can be stored in open-topped barrels and bags punctured for air holes. Storage must allow moisture to contribute to the decomposition process, but no become waterlogged.
• Step 3: Chop/shred organic material and add to the stock-pile. With larger amounts of material, a motorised, or pedal driven chopper/shredder is useful.
• Step 4: Allow materials to decompose, but do not leave for extended periods as nutrients and minerals will be lost.
• Step 5: At the end of the growing season, remove any remaining weeds from the soil surface.
• Step 6: Spread mulch material over the surface approximately two centimetres deep.
• Step 7: In firmer or more compacted top soils, lightly work the mulch into the upper soil.
• Step 8: Lightly water area where mulch has been applied.

Mulch should be applied annually as mulching materials will decompose.

Switching to no-till or reduced tillage should be planned at least a year in advance so preparations can be made necessary implements can be obtained. Implements should match farm labour availability. You will also need to decide if no till or reduced tillage methods are appropriate based on farm area and desired crops, and start with a small area to determine feasibility. Cereal and legume crops are suitable for no tillage while vegetables and other crops often require some tillage – i.e. reduced tillage.

There are two forms of no-tillage, conventional and organic. Conventional no-tillage includes the application of herbicides to manage weeds, prior to and after planting. Organic no-tillage does not incorporate the use of herbicides, but includes other methods for controlling weeds, including cover crops, crop rotation and free-range livestock. Organic no-tillage is more suitable as it assists mitigate any climate change impacts on the farm.

No till

• Step 1: Prepare fields using conventional (herbicide application) or organic processes include cover crop (Technical Brief 15) and crop rotation (Technical Brief 09).
• Step 2: Test soils – aiming to balance nutrient and pH levels. In the case of acidic soils, add small amounts of lime each year.
• Step 3: Avoid soils with bad drainage, as they become water-logged.
• Step 4: Level the soil surface, removing uneven areas to assist even seed planting.
• Step 5: Eliminate soil compaction.

Reduced Till

• Step 1: This approach is similar to regular tillage, but with significantly less disturbance of the soil. Tilling is only done where needed, and the rest of the soil is undisturbed.
• Step 2: Strip-tillage or zone-tillage involves tilling and seeding in 15 cm strips leaving areas in-between undisturbed.
• Step 3: Ridge-tillage involves preparing ridges post-harvest and letting them settle over time to be planted the next seeding period; with ridges not more than 60 cm apart.

More information of each of these specific practices should be sought prior to implementation.

Crop rotation is a complimentary farming method when practicing no-tillage, as it promotes maximum biomass levels for permanent mulch cover, while controlling weeds (with pre- and post-emergent herbicides), pests, and diseases, as well as improving soil nutrition and fertility.

To effectively undertake crop diversification:

• Step 1: Identify potential market opportunities for alternative crops in local/sub-national/national area.
• Step 2: Determine crops that farmer wishes to plant and the purpose whether it be household food stuff, cash crop or fodder crop.
• Step 3:  Establish local demonstration plots at the local level growing non-traditional crops that have market demand and can be incorporated into local farming systems.
• Step 4: Prepare smaller plot through clearing and weeding. CCARDESA recommends a no tillage approach (Technical Brief 12).
• Step 5:  Secure seeds of desired crops and follow planting guidance if the crop has not been previously grown. Sow seeds on small plot.
• Step 6: Track progress of crop and harvest and process as required.
• Step 7: Discuss cost benefit of growing diversified crops with farmers.
• Step 8: Farmers should gradually integrate a new crop(s) into their farming system to ensure that they are comfortable with diversifying at a greater scale.

An example of crop rotation is maize, followed by a legume. Grain SA has reported a 12 % increase in maize production following rotation with legumes such as cowpea. Furthermore, the legume yields often increase following rotation with the grain crop, and sometimes responding differently to the crop type. For example, soybean yield has been measured at 20 % higher following sorghum than maize. To effectively undertake crop rotation:

• Step 1: Determine which cereal crops and legumes are available in the area of interest.
• Step 2: Prepare land through clearing, weeding. No-tillage approaches are preferable (Technical Brief 12).
• Step 3: Plant a leafy cereal crop (maize or sorghum) and let the crop mature and harvest once ready. Once harvested, bend stalks over to increase biomass.
• Step 4: If possible, allow field to fallow for a short period. If this is not possible, practice cover cropping (Technical Brief 15).
• Step 5: Prepare land again, and sow second crop, usually a legume to improve soil structure and fertility. Harvest crop once ready.
• Step 6: Repeat process. It is possible to include more than two crops into crop rotation if desired.

It is advisable to carefully monitor yield for demonstration purposes, run test plots if necessary.

To effectively implement relay cropping, the following steps should be carried out:

• Step 1: Test/experiment with locally available crops to determine if they are complementary and can grow concurrently - cereal crops and legumes are complementary and can generally grow concurrently.
• Step 2: Prepare land through clearing, weeding and a no-tillage approach (Technical Brief 12).
• Step 3: Plant cereal crop first according to normal planting season schedule –during rainy season. Space this cereal crop 70 cm by 50 cm apart.
• Step 4: Prior to cereal harvest, plant the legume crop between cereal crop rows with spacing based on legume planting efficiencies (researched prior to planting for optimum growth).
• Step 5: After cereal has been harvested, bend the dried stalks down to provide more ground cover.
• Step 6: When legumes are ready for harvest, collect the productive pod/seed/bean/nut and leave the stalk uprooted in the field to maximise ground cover.

To implement intercropping practices:

• Step 1: Consider soil properties - has the soil been mono-cropped and/or is it leached?
• Step 2: Consider crop characteristics – will crops be competing for nutrients, water space, sunlight or will they be mutually beneficial adding nutrients
• Step 3: Prepare land through clearing and weeding. A no-tillage approach is recommended – see Technical Brief 12.
• Step 4: Select whether the farmer should undertake Mixed Intercropping (Good for smaller plots however plants compete) or Row/Strip Intercropping (crops less likely to compete). See also KP07 – Climate Smart Planting Options for Maize and Sorghum.
• Step 5: If mixed intercropping is selected, sow two crops simultaneously mixing seeds to together while planting. Harvesting may not be a simultaneous process as different crops have different growth rates and seasons.
• Step 6: If row/strip intercropping plant two or more crops in the same field but in separate rows patterns. Rows should be spaced 50 cm apart and can have a row of 1:1 or 2:1 ratio of cereal crop to legume.
• Step 7: Harvest as individual crops require, be careful not to disrupt other crops that have not yet matured.

To effectively implement biochar the following should be carried out. Tools required – shovel and a metal sieve.

• Step 1: Acquire charcoal from local vendor, and sieve or grate the charcoal into fine material in a pile. Biochar should not be applied to soil directly after production. It should be allowed to ‘rest’ for one to two months.
• Step 2: Rotate the pile every 2-days for a period of up to 10-days (total).
• Step 3: Prior to application, aim to wet (but not waterlog) biochar stock with water or preferably urine. If done when still warm, it will fracture the charcoal, increasing surface area for absorption.
• Step 4: Spread the biochar evenly across soil prior to planting and let it settle or mix with the top layer of soil. One to three kg/m2 is recommended, depending on the degree of soil required.
• Step 5: Regularly monitor soil pH, water retention and soil texture, keeping records if relevant to ensure that improvements are realised, and negative impacts do not arise.

Biochar can be produced on-farm, but will require collection of plant and waste feedstock (see above). Biochar can be produced on-farm using a trench. A biochar trench is a dug recess where crop residues are burned to create charcoal. Tools required are a shovel and one or more roofing sheets (one-metre long).

• Step 1: Dig trench 50 to 70 cm deep, and one to two metres long, ensuring that roofing sheets fully cover the trench void.
• Step 2: Start a fire in one end of the trench, throwing in loose crop residue or other organic waste, keeping the fire under control (not creating large flames and smoke).
• Step 3: Keep fire burning until trench is full of char.
• Step 4: When the trench is full, and flames have burned-out, cover the trench with the roofing sheet, sealing edges with loose soil, trampling it down to ensure closure.
• Step 5: Leave the covered trench for five to six hours to extinguish.

To effectively apply a green manure approach, the following should be considered:

• Step 1: Select legumes that grow well under local conditions and in local soils. Green manure crops should be resilient and require few crop management practices. A thorough investigation should be made to ensure that green manure crops are appropriate for the local conditions in terms of rainfall, climate, soil pH and texture, and salt tolerance.
• Step 2: Identify the appropriate time for planting the green manure crop to ensure growth, but not impacting the primary crop. Especially if the secondary crop is a climber/creeper. Main crop may need to be mature before planting the manure crop, as if a creeper, it may outcompete or constraint growth of maize or sorghum plants.
• Step 3: If seeking to enrich soil properties, the farmer must allow crop residue to remain in the soil longer. This is particularly relevant with multiple uses – e.g. soil amendments and livestock fodder. In these cases, pods can be harvested for fodder, and the remaining plant residue left in the field to cover the soil.
• Step 4: Crop planting should be alley cropped between the primary crop rows, allowing management of the primary and secondary crops, also reducing the competition between the primary and the secondary crop. If the secondary crop also has pest management properties, it may be beneficial to consider boundary planting.
• Step 5: When harvesting the secondary crop, the farmer should consider leaving the residue in the ground. If it is uprooted, it should left on the soil surface. A common mistake is to remove it from the field and accumulate it in one location, missing the benefits of cover-crops, and exposing the residue to decay.

Unless local examples are available, small test plots should be used to test different cover crops to determine which is the most appropriate, and if necessary, demonstrate value to farmers and communities. As the secondary (green manure) crop is not a direct cash-crop, you may need to ensure expectations are measured. It may take several years to develop enough green manure crop to contribute to crop production; hence, crop production has to fit around existing cash/subsistence crops. Furthermore, benefits may not be realised within a single planting season., e.g. Nitrogen may only be available in the soil in the subsequent season.