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To effectively implement Carrying capacity improvement:

• Step 1: There is no standard equation to determine the carrying capacity of an area, as many variables apply and factors relevant within each context including size of land unit, amount, frequency and timing of rainfall seasons, type of vegetation, species of animal, etc.
• Step 2: Extension officers should aim to support farmers to continuously monitor rangeland status and realise the impacts of over-grazing and the benefits of finding an equilibrium.
• Step 3: Constant monitoring of the pasture and animals must be carried out throughout the year to check if stocking rate aligns with the carrying capacity of the land unit. If land degradation is identified, adjustments to stocking rates should be considered, in the context of season and landscape regeneration.
  • For communal grazing land, it is ideal to use Animal Units (AU) to calculate the relative grazing impact of different kinds and classes of domestic livestock and/or even common grazing wildlife species for one month (AUM = Animal Unit Months). This information should support collective decision-making regarding rangeland resources.

        Using a conversion table of, the AUE (Animal Unit Equivalent) and the formula:

        1) multiply the number of animals to be grazed on the pasture by AUE to determine total AU, then

        2) multiply the total AU by the number of months planned to graze (see formula below or

        Worksheet A of the Range Calculator).

        Formula: _____________ x _____________ = _____________ x _____________ = _____________

                        # Animals         AUE(table)     Animal Units (AU)   Months (M)           AUM

• Step 4: One option for effectively responding to carrying capacity challenges is shift or changing grazing species if high consumption species are placing pressure on a particular unit of land.

To effectively implement NCF practices:

• Step 1: Determine potential sources of NCFs in the local area and consider if the potential products are suitable (provide enough energy, are digestible, palatable to livestock animals, etc) and require additional investment to access or use.
• Step 2: Collect for free/negotiate lower rates with producers of agroecological industrial process biproducts or plant materials to gain access to their ‘waste’ materials.
• Step 3: Determine how sustainable and consistent the supply will be from the providers. If possible, identify a range of suppliers to mitigate potential losses of stockpiled NCFs.
• Step 4: Before being used as feed, NCF’s from agroecological processes must be appropriately processed - (grinding (8 mm) and pelleting) and mixed into a uniform blend. Hence, labour requirements may increase. This could be mechanised.
• Step 5: Livestock should be monitored when these feeds are introduced to ensure digestibility of the product for the animals.
• Step 6: Based on advice from the suppliers of agroecological industrial process biproducts, ensure appropriate storage of materials to avoid loss of nutrition, pests and waste.

To effectively implement Changing Harvest Time practices:

• Step 1: Consider researching recent rainfall records and consult national meteorological services to as accurately predict start of rainy season as possible.
• Step 2: Farmers should consult data provided by the African Post Harvest Loss Information System (APHLIS), which provides information on harvest loss and additional resources to consult.
• Step 3: Consult with national agricultural extension and research to determine growing periods of chosen crops. Request information about quicker or slower maturing seeds.
• Step 4: Plant crops at the right time so as to avoid harvesting during rainy season.
• Step 5: Harvest as soon as crops are physiologically mature.
• Step 6: Wait 24 hours after a rain period to harvest if rain is unavoidable. This may take several days, however, harvesting crops after one rain is better than leaving it for an entire rainy season.
• Step 7: Crops should be transported to the storage for immediate drying.

To effectively implement Best Practice Harvesting Techniques:

• Step 1: Obtain equipment and supplies needed for the harvest and post-harvest activities, e.g. clean sacks, drying mats, etc.
• Step 2: Allocate drying and threshing areas, ensuring the areas are swept, dry, and there is no/limited access for livestock or rodents. If in a dry climate or season, drying outside is optimal. If necessary, construct drying cribs elevated from the ground with rodent guards on legs can reduce access for rodents.
• Step 3: Allocate sufficient storage space for the harvested crop.
• Step 4: Clear weeds from the farm to prevent weed seeds from contaminating the harvest.
• Step 5: Place the harvested crop directly onto clean mats and bags to avoid contact with the soil, which may lead to moisture uptake and also prevent contamination with tiny Striga.

To effectively implement Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration:

• Step 1: Degraded land needs to be identified and living stumps, roots and seeds need to be encouraged to regrow. This may include periodic watering. Focus should be on indigenous species, and present tree species (existing stumps).
• Step 2: Consider leaving the field un-grazed to promote tree growth.
• Step 3: Select tree stumps and the tallest and straightest stems to grow into trees.
• Step 4: Prune and manage by removing stems and unwanted side branches.
• Step 5: Maintain the process by occasionally pruning side branches.
• Step 6: Manage the land consistently to avoid overgrazing, which can lead to further degradation.
• Step 7: Consider rotational grazing to allow seeds, stumps and underground shrubs to re-grow. This will reduce the cost of replanting. Shrubs and growing trees and saplings need to be protected before introducing livestock. Shrubs and growing trees and saplings need to be protected before introducing livestock.

To effectively implement hedge planting:

• Step 1: Purchase saplings of selected tree species from a local nursery or grow saplings in separate on-farm nursery. If growing on-farm, saplings should be held-up with an upright support bamboo/wooden pole. Ideally, the farmer should begin exploring silvopasture tree species beginning with indigenous trees, such as acacias, and other local trees. It is worth considering a mixture of species, as well as mixed shallower and deeper rooted trees.
• Step 2: Once at a meter or over in height, transplant to pastures, surrounding each individual sapling with a wire mesh cage-tube or insert into five-centimetre diameter PVC pipe to protect from browsers. Plant at least ten to twenty meters apart, in either a random or uniform pattern. This is a matter of preference.
• Step 3: Once saplings are planted, only allow grazing livestock (cows, sheep, ducks, geese, chickens) in the silvopasture, avoiding browsers (goats, etc), which will strip, damage or destroy the saplings.
• Step 4: Once mature and above browsing height, two plus meters, remove protective cage or pipe.
• Step 5: Depending on species, pruning, coppicing etc should be performed every two months to ensure that trees remain healthy and productive, while maximising outputs for in-field and cut and carry fodder.

To effectively implement Boundary Planting practices:

• Step 1: Plant long lines of two fast growing trees, Caesalpinia velutina trees, between a Bombacopsis quinate and a Swietenia humilis to be replaced over time.
• Step 2: Consider planting the boundary trees 1.5 metres apart along pre-existing fences.
• Step 3: Attach metal fencing to the trees to support the large trees without endangering their growth. Harvest fodder when the tree is overgrown.
• Step 4: Prune lower brunches to encourage upward growth of trees and reduce shed on the plants.

To effectively implement Alternate Wetting and Drying practices:

• Step 1: Alternate wetting and drying should be considered by the farmer after two weeks of rice transplant.
• Step 2: The farmer should consider digging half of 30 cm tube into soil to monitor water level.
• Step 3: When the water level is 15 cm below the soil surface the field should be irrigated again with a depth of 3 to 5 cm before water drains.
• Step 4: This cycle should be repeated until flowering stage to avoid disturbing reproduction because at this stage the crops are sensitive to water stress.

To effectively implement Rainwater Harvesting practices:

• Step 1: Create a water collection zone connected to a gutter system.
• Step 2: Install filters to the water collection zone.
• Step 3: Connect a hose pipe for easy distribution of irrigation water.
• Step 4: If a farmer intends to use water for human consumption other than flushing toilets, etc, water quality must be frequently tested using reliable and low-cost/low-tech solutions.
• Step 5: Use of filters can be considered to reduce particulate and other pollutants but should be thoroughly investigated – as a separate subject – by the extension officer and the farmer, otherwise it could lead to illness. It is recommended that farms utilise harvested rainwater for irrigation and other farming activities only.

To effectively Water Spreading Bunds the following should be carried out:

• Step 1: Farmers should consider making earth bunds by hand, animal ploughs or mechanised ploughs.
• Step 2: Contour bunds:
  • Contour lines must be plotted and marked prior to developing the bund.
  • A 40 cm deep infiltration pit is dug directly above where the bund will be plotted.
  • Bunds should be spread 5 m to 10 m apart.
  • Material from the infiltration pit will be piled and compacted to form a 25 cm to 30 cm in height with a base of 75 cm.
  • Soil is piled to form a ridge along the contour. The more significant the slope, the closer the bunds must be plotted.
• Step 3: Semi-circle bunds:
  • Contour lines must be plotted and marked prior to developing the bund.
  • A centre point is chosen as diameter for the bund is selected (this could be 3 m or 30 m depending on the available space). From the centre point a string is used to stake out an even semi-circle.
  • Excavate a small trench before the bund and pile the excavated material. Pile and compact a bund wall, wetting it often to form the wall.
• Step 4: Contour stone bunds:
  • Developed on less steep slopes.
  • Must have access to local stones.
  • Dig out a shallow ditch, 10 cm to 15 cm in depth.
  • Lay largest stones at the bottom of the ditch and pile smaller stone upward.
  • Step 5: Regular monitoring of bunds should take place, especially after rain events or after significant periods of time. Repairs should be done if any damage is found.