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Resistant varieties are new crop varieties that improve yield production, are resistant to pests and diseases, more tolerant to drought, salinity or other changing or undesirable environmental conditions. Crop plants used within this practice are usually only resistant to a limited number of undesirable characteristics e.g. pests or drought – but usually not both, and some other desirable traits may be lost while others may be strengthened. Hence, careful selection of candidate species must be undertaken. Resistance varieties common in southern Africa include drought resistant maize, sorghum, rice and cowpea (beneficial legume for intercropping) strains, striga (witch weed) resistant sorghum and maize strains, and others all help farmers adapt to changing climate conditions, by being able to farm crops that survive the increasingly variable climate, which can result in less rainfall, or the presence of new pests. Striga results in crop losses totalling over USD 1 billion per year, whereas research has shown that planting climate resilient maize varieties can lead to up to a 25 % increase in crop yields.

Exploring new pest or drought resistant varieties in a regional will require demonstration and testing in ‘test plots’, so extension workers can ensure that the outcomes are aligned with farmers wants/needs/tastes, and so farmers are familiar with the new varieties before they are mainstreamed. Acceptance of new varieties, and any changes is traits will be critical, as resistant varieties is a key intervention for climate adaptation in southern Africa, as they will allow farmers to remain productive for longer under challenging conditions, and while different crops altogether are investigated.

Cultural pest control practices Are pest control management measures to control pests (insects, diseases, weeds) by manipulation of the environment or implementation of preventive practices including using plants that are resistant to pests, raising the mowing height of pastures to shade out weeds, aerating pastures to reduce compaction and plant stress. Several beneficial cultural practices can meet both demands, helping with pest and disease control and minimizing the use of toxic chemicals. In the insect pest management context, cultural practices may be considered as specific crop production practices that may be implemented either in the initial stages of the organic farm plan but also as a continuous plan to reduce the likelihood of insect pest infestation to a crop and damage. They form part of the Integrated Pest management (IPM) Practices and are based on tactics to disrupt pest infestation of crops by having the crop unavailable to pests in space and time, making the crop unacceptable to pests by interfering with host preference or location, reducing pest survival on the crop by enhancing natural enemies, altering the crop’s susceptibility to pests. The tactics or methods used in IPM include one or a combination of the following: Cultural control (crop rotation, use of locally adapted or pest resistant/tolerant varieties, sanitation, manipulating planting/harvest dates to avoid pests). Cultural pest control or IPM results in reduced pests/diseases and increased yields and is a climate-smart practice as its emphasis of prevention helps to control pests and diseases before they occur;  its continuous long-term practices without use of chemicals encourage healthier and more pest resilient crops and landscapes, encouraging the use of beneficial insects  making it an adaptation benefit. The possibility of prediction and recognition of pest outbreaks enables earlier management consultations and decisions. The reduction in losses results in lower GHG emissions per tonne produced.

Vectors are organisms that carry diseases from one living being to another without showing symptoms of the diseases themselves. Some of the most common forms of vectors are blood sucking insects such as mosquitos, fleas, lice, ticks and other similar insects, and rats/rodents. Places such as stagnant water and dumping sites can be ideal habitats for vectors to reside and transmit. The use of natural vector predators can help reduce or eliminate vector populations. The most common vectors in southern Africa are insects (tsetse flies-trypanosomiasis), animals (foot and mouth disease through cattle or people with contaminated shoes), tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF).  Sanitising the life-cycle of vectors, implementing pest traps and introducing pest predators are means of reducing the spread of disease. The impacts of climate change, especially increased heavy rainfall and higher temperatures can encourage vector populations to grow quicker than normal. Simple strategies to control vectors includes keeping livestock surroundings clean, avoiding livestock access to stagnant water, fencing areas off, restricting animal access to certain locations, can all control biological vectors and assist in reducing vector spread.

Hybridisation is the agricultural practice of genetically manipulating flora and fauna that differ in heredity. Hybridisation and mutations are the main source of hereditary variation and can result in the increased growth rate, manipulated gender ratios, increased yields, sterile animals, improved flesh quality, increase disease resistance and improve environmental tolerance. Intraspecific hybridisation method is used for livestock breeding whereby individuals of different breeds or strains are mated. Distant hybridisation for livestock is difficult to accomplish as hybrids are usually sterile. Hybrid animals are extremely difficult to produce and specialists often spend their careers attempting to create a new breed of animal. Hybridisation is plant species is more common and has a greater success rate than animal species, however successfully creating a hybrid species remains difficult to achieve. Specialists are trained on the gene sequence and different methods for accomplishing hybridisation. The development of hybrid flora and fauna is often undertaken to address a problem or issue. For example, to address socio-economic challenges agricultural researchers may attempt to produce a species of chickens who lay lager eggs or cows who produce more milk. Hybridisation is also applied to address the challenges of a changing climate including producing crops that are more drought resistant. Due to the research and development of these hybrid species they are expensive to access and often not available in remote areas. Traditional breeds are pure individual species with no DNA alterations. They are often endemic to an area and because of this have evolved and adapted to the geophysical area they are found. Thus, traditional breeds are often found in certain areas, and through traditional knowledge have been incorporated into local farming systems for generations. With an increasingly globalised world, it is difficult to maintain distinct traditional breeds as trade in species, seeds etc. is increasingly prevalent. However, with a new focus and dedication of farmers and researchers to explore indigenous knowledge there is an increased focus on reinvigorating the incorporation of traditional breeds of both flora and fauna.

Manure is organic matter that is used as an organic fertiliser in agricultural practices, conditioning and adding nutrients to soil, generally derived from animal faeces. Manure is the best source of fertiliser available to a farmer, as it can be readily available from livestock, and it a more environmentally friendly option over synthetic fertilisers. Animal manure, compost and green manure are the three different types of manure used in soil management. Manure is collected in different forms: liquid manure, slurry manure or solid manure, and treated in different systems depending on its state. Liquid and slurry manure are stored in liquid (slurry) manure storage systems whereas solid manure is stored in sacks in order to allow air and toxic vapours to move in and out, as well as to maintain the moisture content. The manure is collected and treated (as described below) in order to kill pests that may feed on crops during the application period. The manure is further cleaned to remove unwanted substances such as sticks, and large lumps formed in the manure.

Grains are stored to reduce the opportunities for loss, damage or infestation by pests. On the farm grain storage can be short-term (>3 months) before it is moved to the supply chain, long term (3-12 months) while farmers store it for home consumption, to sell when prices are more favourable or for planting in the next season. During this phase of post-harvest processing, grains can be stored in bags, silos or other bulk storage containers. Bag storage utilises permeable sacks that will allow air movement in and out of the bag. Structures can be built to store grains and solid-wall bins or silos should be used in areas where grains can be dried properly. Other options include airtight underground pits, steel bins, while concrete silos and warehouses can also be used as storage options. While storing grains to ensure favourable storage, facilities should be kept clean, covered, and never exposed to the elements.  However, pest control measures need to be established, such as adhering to acceptable grain moisture content levels at storage to deter insect infestation, as pests (rodents, insects, etc.) can devastate grains in storage. Physical storage options are built to meet the demand and supply of grains season-to-season and to make seeds available for the next planting season.

Drying techniques are agricultural practices applied to assist with the balance of moisture in grains post-harvest, determined by a combination of ambient temperature and relative humidity. Spoiling due to insufficiently dried grain is one of the main causes of grain deterioration, loss in grain quality, and thus market value. Grains have the capability to absorb or evaporate moisture, and a balance of moisture content in the air and grains should be sought to achieve an Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). EMC prevents the formation of moulds that may affect the quality of grains, spread of pests and germination of grain seeds. After harvest, transportation and threshing, grain needs to be further dried to be preserved. Natural drying techniques are based on ambient air circulation to reduce the moisture content of the grain before storage. Artificial drying techniques apply fans and/or heating elements to move air and maintain constant temperatures .Natural drying (sun drying) is the preferred, commonly used agricultural technique in southern Africa and does not require use of machinery. Drying techniques preserve the contents of seeds thus assuring sustainable agricultural productivity and the practice as climate smart.

Changing harvest time refers to adjusting harvest time to focus on optimal moisture conditions, thereby avoiding losses from mould, decay and possible disease, while also considering optimal maturity of the crop. This approach encourages the reduction in potential losses of ripened grain and increases potential higher quality grain for consumption or market. Harvesting of crops when physiologically mature can minimise losses during transportation to the homestead. Physiological harvesting refers to the time when a grain (fruit, etc.) can be separated from its parent plant and continues to ripen over time. Farmers should consider planting earlier or later or consider planting faster or slower maturing varieties to avoid issues of post-harvest loss. This is a climate smart practice because it reduces potential losses of ripened grain, increase the quality of grain harvested, and is overall a more efficient use of resources, all while mitigating the spread of diseases and reducing GHG emissions.

Best Practice Harvesting Techniques are formalised harvesting practices intended to reduce breakage and bruising of crops during collection and storage. These techniques minimise harvest losses and maintain the quality of the produce. To maximise this approach, factors such as moisture content, cleanness of the grain, colour, odour and potential pest infestation need to be considered during harvest periods. Considering each of these factors will increase grain value as quality standards are directly related to grain price. Harvesting can be performed manually or mechanically, with obvious cost implication of employing the latter.

Boundary planting, also known as live fence planting, is a technique used to protect crops from the interference of people and animals that can disturb plant growth. Trees/shrubs are a good example of this approach as they can form a shield when planted along the boundaries of the garden or surrounding a planted field. The trees/shrubs act as wind break to shield plants against strong winds causing physical damage to plants themselves, or the removal of soil (erosion). Additional benefits include the use of branches for firewood or building materials, and the other parts of trees can be used as fodder, fruit or leave harvested for consumption, or for medicinal use. Tree/shrub spacing is critical, as trees that have dense canopies can conversely cause destructive down-drafts, negating the intended benefits. Boundary planting helps limit global warming by mitigating GHG emissions through reducing harmful gases such as, carbon dioxide, from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen.