Mechanised

Assisted reproduction refers to artificial insemination, where semen is deliberately introduced to fertilise eggs in domestic animals. Artificial insemination helps in obtaining genetic improvements that yield higher production levels. This practice is more expensive but more efficient than natural reproduction. Artificial insemination reduces the risk of disease transmission and injuries or accidents during mating. Sperm duplication can be done from a single ejaculation to make hundreds of doses and distributed across farmers to have variety of breeds rather than off-spring from single bulls. This prevents inbreeding and promotes hybrid vigour among farmers’. In the southern African context, where most grazing is communal, use of bulls to improve breeds can be challenging as it is difficult to adopt a grazing system that will ensure good quality breeds are able to pass their progeny to the next generation, as young and likely non-superior bulls are likely to mate with cows during grazing. To achieve genetic improvement using open grazing requires controlled grazing systems, e.g. by use of paddocks to manage bulls grazing and mixing with cows.

Hybridisation is the agricultural practice of genetically manipulating flora and fauna that differ in heredity. Hybridisation and mutations are the main source of hereditary variation and can result in the increased growth rate, manipulated gender ratios, increased yields, sterile animals, improved flesh quality, increase disease resistance and improve environmental tolerance. Intraspecific hybridisation method is used for livestock breeding whereby individuals of different breeds or strains are mated. Distant hybridisation for livestock is difficult to accomplish as hybrids are usually sterile. Hybrid animals are extremely difficult to produce and specialists often spend their careers attempting to create a new breed of animal. Hybridisation is plant species is more common and has a greater success rate than animal species, however successfully creating a hybrid species remains difficult to achieve. Specialists are trained on the gene sequence and different methods for accomplishing hybridisation. The development of hybrid flora and fauna is often undertaken to address a problem or issue. For example, to address socio-economic challenges agricultural researchers may attempt to produce a species of chickens who lay lager eggs or cows who produce more milk. Hybridisation is also applied to address the challenges of a changing climate including producing crops that are more drought resistant. Due to the research and development of these hybrid species they are expensive to access and often not available in remote areas. Traditional breeds are pure individual species with no DNA alterations. They are often endemic to an area and because of this have evolved and adapted to the geophysical area they are found. Thus, traditional breeds are often found in certain areas, and through traditional knowledge have been incorporated into local farming systems for generations. With an increasingly globalised world, it is difficult to maintain distinct traditional breeds as trade in species, seeds etc. is increasingly prevalent. However, with a new focus and dedication of farmers and researchers to explore indigenous knowledge there is an increased focus on reinvigorating the incorporation of traditional breeds of both flora and fauna.

Manure is organic matter that is used as an organic fertiliser in agricultural practices, conditioning and adding nutrients to soil, generally derived from animal faeces. Manure is the best source of fertiliser available to a farmer, as it can be readily available from livestock, and it a more environmentally friendly option over synthetic fertilisers. Animal manure, compost and green manure are the three different types of manure used in soil management. Manure is collected in different forms: liquid manure, slurry manure or solid manure, and treated in different systems depending on its state. Liquid and slurry manure are stored in liquid (slurry) manure storage systems whereas solid manure is stored in sacks in order to allow air and toxic vapours to move in and out, as well as to maintain the moisture content. The manure is collected and treated (as described below) in order to kill pests that may feed on crops during the application period. The manure is further cleaned to remove unwanted substances such as sticks, and large lumps formed in the manure.

Rotational grazing is a practice of moving livestock between different units of pasture in regular sequence to allow the recovery and regrowth of pasture plants after grazing. This facilitates management of the nutritional needs of the various types of livestock whilst maintaining pasture productivity. Management of intensive grazing/controlled grazing is a climate smart practice as it results in improved forage harvest, soil fertility, resistance to drought, reduced pasture weeds establishment, reduced wastage of forage and soil compaction.

Rotational grazing can also be combined with cut and carry approaches - when managed correctly; rotational grazing can provide enough forage growth early in the grazing season for producers to harvest feed for later use in some paddocks as rotation continues. Farmers can use temporary fence systems to manage the size of, and access to pastures.

Carrying capacity defines the number of Animal Units (AU; head of cattle or number of sheep, goats or other animals) that can graze in a rangeland unit without exhausting the vegetation and soil quality – essentially optimally utilising resources. Optimum carrying capacity is where a given unit of rangeland can support healthy populations of animal species, while allowing an ecosystem to regenerate, thus creating a sustainable balance. The stocking rate - defined as the number of animal species grazing a unit of rangeland for a limited period - must be kept fixed on an average year, meeting the carrying capacity to allow regeneration, the fallen seeds to rejuvenate and the soil to recover. However, stocking rates can fluctuate depending on the nature of the vegetation, rainfall variability, herd composition and management system. If the conditions are not favourable for vegetation growth during drought season, the number of livestock or the grazing period must be adjusted to avoid overgrazing. Moreover, the purpose of livestock keeping, i.e. for milk, meat, or wool production, will determine the carrying capacity of a rangeland unit. Factors such as climatic zone, rainfall dependency, class of livestock (steer, dry cow, calves, lactating cow and bull, etc), health of grassland and animal species affect the stocking rate. While relevant in all climatic zones, it is more applicable in arid and semi-arid zones where rainfall is most scarce. This climate smart practice increases production (meat/dairy), increases pasture resilience to extreme climate hazards (drought) and enhances soil fertility.

General Feed Supplements are used to increase nutrients in livestock diets, with the aim of maintaining or improving livestock health through adequate animal nutritional balance and therefore productivity of milk or meat. These supplements include vitamins, amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients. Supplementary feeding can becoming either a regular part of the production cycle to help match feed demand to feed supply, assisting livestock farmers meet production requirements as defined by market specifications, or reserved for times of shortage during dry spells and/or droughts. The extent to which supplementary feeding is applied depends on the farm/business objectives and seasonal conditions. This is especially true in areas of low-quality crop residues and low quality pasture land.

Feed supplements are presented in granular, powder or block form and used during milk production and fattening stages for meat production. However, if consumed in excess feed supplements can be harmful to animals causing toxicity and if persistent, death.

Improved protein content in animal feed can positively impact productivity, such as the quality and quantity of meat and milk.  With the increase in global demand for meat and dairy products, the increase of protein in livestock diets is extremely important. Key to the absorption of protein in livestock diets is the improved digestibility of protein. For protein to be utilised efficiently by livestock i.e. consumed and converted into body protein and resulting in bigger and better-quality meat, certain amino acids need to be present. Thus, to maximise protein deposition in livestock, the required amino acids must also be included in the feed. Amino acids have been added to livestock feed for over 40-years. The most common amino acids added to feeds are Methionine, Lysine, Threonine, and Tryptophan. With the expansion of inexpensive plant-based proteins (soybeans etc.) and increasing demands for meat, plant-based proteins offer an alternative or supplement to amino-acids, contributing to greater efficiency of conversion of proteins from feed to meat. Plant-based proteins also require less monitoring than synthetic additives, but amino acids are often needed to maintain digestibility. Improved livestock productivity and conversion is climate smart because there is more efficient conversion of food to weight gain and less livestock pressure on land, supporting a more efficient value chain.

Non-Conventional Feeds (NCF) are either traditional or commercial animal feed-types that are not traditionally utilised as animal feed. These feeds are generally in one of two categories: by-products of agroecological industrial processes, or plants/plant materials from other processes. Examples of industrial by-products include groundnut cake, molasses and cotton seed meal, which are outputs from other processes and are found in proximity of manufacturing points, but often have a short shelf-life. Plant materials can be vegetable peels or locally available crop residues such as maize stalks and other remaining parts of harvested plants not consumed by humans. NCF decrease the demand of land to grow fodder, act as an alternative source for animal feed, resulting in the decrease of food competition between animals and humans ensuring food security. Furthermore, the use of bi-products optimises the use of raw materials and can increase profitability for the producer and the farmer.

Drying techniques are agricultural practices applied to assist with the balance of moisture in grains post-harvest, determined by a combination of ambient temperature and relative humidity. Spoiling due to insufficiently dried grain is one of the main causes of grain deterioration, loss in grain quality, and thus market value. Grains have the capability to absorb or evaporate moisture, and a balance of moisture content in the air and grains should be sought to achieve an Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). EMC prevents the formation of moulds that may affect the quality of grains, spread of pests and germination of grain seeds. After harvest, transportation and threshing, grain needs to be further dried to be preserved. Natural drying techniques are based on ambient air circulation to reduce the moisture content of the grain before storage. Artificial drying techniques apply fans and/or heating elements to move air and maintain constant temperatures .Natural drying (sun drying) is the preferred, commonly used agricultural technique in southern Africa and does not require use of machinery. Drying techniques preserve the contents of seeds thus assuring sustainable agricultural productivity and the practice as climate smart.

Changing harvest time refers to adjusting harvest time to focus on optimal moisture conditions, thereby avoiding losses from mould, decay and possible disease, while also considering optimal maturity of the crop. This approach encourages the reduction in potential losses of ripened grain and increases potential higher quality grain for consumption or market. Harvesting of crops when physiologically mature can minimise losses during transportation to the homestead. Physiological harvesting refers to the time when a grain (fruit, etc.) can be separated from its parent plant and continues to ripen over time. Farmers should consider planting earlier or later or consider planting faster or slower maturing varieties to avoid issues of post-harvest loss. This is a climate smart practice because it reduces potential losses of ripened grain, increase the quality of grain harvested, and is overall a more efficient use of resources, all while mitigating the spread of diseases and reducing GHG emissions.