to 500mm

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is a technique of restoring degraded land and monitoring restoration of the land involving the systematic regeneration and management of trees and shrubs from tree stumps, roots and seed. Degraded arid land often features left over indigenous plants, which if maintained and promoted to grow can improve pasture and crop lands while simultaneously encouraging re-growth of seeds, roots and shrubs. Key to this practice is the existence of living stumps, tree roots and seed that, if encouraged, will regrow. The land is protected from being completely cleared or further grazed and this allows trees to grow without disturbance. Once the stumps and trees start to grow, pruning and trimming of trees is required to allow space between trees and promote healthy long tree trunks. Once the trees have matured, intercropping can take place or livestock can be re-introduced to graze.

While requiring some investment in terms of effort, FMNR has climate smart advantages such as controlling rainfall/irrigation run-off, supporting water quality improvements, providing sources of timber or fodder, supporting habitant regeneration for pollinator insect species, acting as sun shade, and reducing soil erosion.

Agroforestry is a land management practice that combines the planting and management of trees and shrubs with crops and pasture, providing benefits of soil health, crop yields, resilience to climate change, biodiversity and economic opportunities. Agroforestry encompasses numerous practices, including silvo-pasture, agro-silvo cultural, and agro-silvo-pastural. One such successful agroforestry practice is silvo-pasture – the planting of trees and shrubs within livestock grazing pasture lands. Not to be confused with agrosilvopasture (combination of crops, shrubs/trees and livestock, silvopasture is the combination of trees and shrubs with pastural grazing land. The trees can be regularly or irregularly placed, and in addition to improving soil conditions in pasture lands, also provide production of protein-rich tree fodder for on farm feeding and for cut-and-carry fodder production. If growing larger species of tree, coppicing can also produce timber for building materials and firewood.

Boundary planting, also known as live fence planting, is a technique used to protect crops from the interference of people and animals that can disturb plant growth. Trees/shrubs are a good example of this approach as they can form a shield when planted along the boundaries of the garden or surrounding a planted field. The trees/shrubs act as wind break to shield plants against strong winds causing physical damage to plants themselves, or the removal of soil (erosion). Additional benefits include the use of branches for firewood or building materials, and the other parts of trees can be used as fodder, fruit or leave harvested for consumption, or for medicinal use. Tree/shrub spacing is critical, as trees that have dense canopies can conversely cause destructive down-drafts, negating the intended benefits. Boundary planting helps limit global warming by mitigating GHG emissions through reducing harmful gases such as, carbon dioxide, from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen.

Alternate wetting and drying also called intermittent flooding is a technique developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) to control water consumption in rice fields (CGIAR 2014). This technology saves water throughout the year in areas of variable rainfall. It is designed as a pick-up water system in cases when water consumption is cut. Water levels are monitored and controlled by the removal of excess water, leaving enough water to sustain crops. Alternate wetting and drying reduces greenhouse gas emissions especially methane, which is emitted from flooded rice fields (FAO 2016). The drying phase helps to sustain and develop plant roots. Moreover, costs on fuel used for irrigation are reduced.

Rainwater harvesting is an agricultural technique of collecting and storing rainwater or runoff in tanks or natural reservoirs. This practice is mostly practiced in arid or semi-arid areas with temporal and spatial variability of rainfall mostly lost as surface runoff or evaporation. Runoff is harvested and utilised as a preventative measure for soil erosion, as well as a water management strategy for irrigating crops and for livestock water. This technique enables farmers to capture and store rainwater during times of plenty for use during times of scarcity. Rainwater harvesting is a technology that maximises the use of existing freshwater resources and is a useful technology for water resource planners and managers in both governmental and non-governmental organisations, institutions and communities.

Water spreading bunds are barriers used on gradual slopes to slow down surface water and slow filter runoff, increasing the chance of infiltration, capturing runoff sediment, and decreasing soil erosion. Bunds can be built of different materials including packed earth or stones. Bunds can be spread across fields or used in micro-settings around individual trees or plants and should be applied in semi-arid or arid conditions. Bunds efficiently spread rainwater across the system and prevent streams from developing. Implementing bunds in areas with adequate rainfall or irrigation, may cause waterlogging and adversely affect crop growth.

Different types of bunds include:

• Contour bunds: ridges of soil that follow slope contours and can be implemented at a large scale. Crops are cultivated between bunds.
• Semi-circle bunds: ridges of varying size build in a half-moon or semi-circle. They are generally applied to rehabilitate rangelands and/or in the production of fodder.
• Contour stone bunds: lines of stones laid in a shallow dug out areas that slow down the flow of runoff

Half-moon Pits are water harvesting techniques that assists crop growth in harsh climatic conditions, improving water and nutrient availability, promoting biodiversity and restoring the fertility of the degraded soil. The technique is similar to Zai pits in terms of its purpose. Half-moons are semi-circular wide-open basins used to collect runoff water. The mouth of the half-moons must face a slope where rainwater will flow during precipitation events. Water will be trapped in the pit to irrigate crops. Stones are used to support the half-moon curve to avoid being washed away during rain. The amount of fertilisers required in farming systems decreases when this technique is adopted by farmers. Areas with lots of rainfall are not suitable for this technique as it may lead to water logging effect.

Zai pits are based on a traditional technology approach originating from West Africa that assists farmers working on marginal and degraded land. This approach involves the concentration and conservation of nutrients and water at the crop root systems through the digging of small pits (Zai pits) and filling them with compost, with the aim of increasing soil fertility and water infiltration. Zai pits are dug between planting season and filled with organic fertilisers/composts, which attract worms, termites and other insects, creating mix of material that can be used to fertilise crops. Farmers plant crops directly in these pits, prior to rains and water will infiltrate the pits more easily than the surrounding soil. Applying this technology is laborious to implement, but it  has been found to assist farmers in times of drought or in arid conditions to produce successful crops by maximising the resources available. Zai pits allow for mitigation of desertification in degraded land and an economic use of resources in conditions of scarcity, especially in resource constrained environments

In-field water harvesting is the practice of increasing water infiltration and moisture retention in the soil. The agricultural technique involves the collection of rainwater runoff from fields that is collected and stored for future needs. This water can be stored in infiltration pits and later used to water the same crops, other crops through an irrigation system (usually high value crops, including fruit trees), or used for domestic purposes. Factors like soil, water, and plant type influence the effectiveness and productivity of rainwater harvesting. This type of water harvesting is generally implemented in areas of very low rain (semi-arid) conditions. In-field water harvesting entails establishing micro-catchments at the farm scale, where sloped areas have been cleared or cropped to direct rainwater to the water storage area (a pit that has been dug to store/hold water). Utilising strip cropping to growing crops while providing a method for directing rain is sometime practiced. The soil type has a limiting factor in collecting in-field water due the infiltration rates. In-field water harvesting saves rainfall water that can be used over a longer period than during and immediately after a rainfall event, reduces the risks of crop failure due to no or limited rainfall, and increases rain water productivity.

Drip irrigation is a method of slow delivery of water to crops, through highly-controlled flow management, applied along the soil or at the sub-surface level directly to crop root systems. Drip irrigation is an effective system for conserving water while ensuring that it is used optimally without losing it to evaporation through high efficiency water delivery. Drip irrigation involves establishing a network of tubes, values and pipes connected to water source by a pump, along crop rows. A water source is required which is a drawback as many dryland areas lack these water sources. Drip irrigation is a climate smart option as it increases farmer resilience to the effects of climate change.